Qanun Perubatan

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Sumber-sumber bantuan: Pusat Rujukan Persuratan Melayu.
Salinan Latin Qanun Perubatan, bertarikh 1484, di P.I. Nixon Medical Historical Library University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio.
Avicenna
Avicennism
Kanon Perubatan
Kitab Penyembuhan
Hayy ibn Yaqdhan
Kritikan terhadap falsafah Ibn Sina
Perubatan Unani

Qanun Perubatan (bahasa Inggeris: The Canon of Medicine; Bahasa Arab: القانون في الطب‎ Al-Qanun fi al-Tibb "Hukum Perubatan"; bahasa Parsi: قانون پزشکی Qanun "Hukum"; bahasa Latin: Canon Medicinae "Qanun Perubatan"; bahasa Cina: 回回藥方 / 回回药方 Huíhui Yàofāng "Preskripsi Bangsa Hui")[1][2] adalah sebuah ensiklopedia perubatan 14 jilid dikarang oleh ahli sains Parsi and doktor Ibn Sīnā (Avicenna) dan diselesaikan pada 1025.[3] Buku ini berasaskan gabungan pengalaman peribadinya, perubatan Islam zaman pertengahan, tulisan doktor Rom Galen,[4] doktor India Sushruta dan Charaka, dan Perubatan Parsi,[5] dengan tambahan aspek materia medika Cina.[6] Terdahulunya dikarang dalam bahasa Arab, buku ini kemudian diterjemahkan ke dalam sebilangan bahasa lain, termasuk bahasa Parsi, Latin, Cina, Ibrani, Jerman, Perancis dan Inggeris.[7] Qanun ini dianggap salah satu buku termasyhur dalam sejarah perubatan.[8]

Juga digelarkan Qanun, yang bermakna "hukum" dalam bahasa Arab dan Parsi, Qanun Perubatan tetap menjadi wibawa perubatan hingga kurun ke-18[9] dan awal kurun ke-19.[10] Ia meletakkan piawai bagi perubatan di Eropah dan dunia Islam, dan merupakan karya bertulis termasyhur Ibu Sina bersama dengan Buku Penyembuhan. Qanun digunakan di banyak sekolah perubatan—di Universiti Montpellier, Perancis, selewat 1650.[8] Kebanyakan bukunya turut diterjemahkan ke bahasa Cina sebagai Huihui Yaofang (Preskripsi Bangsa Hui) oleh orang Hui di China Yuan.[11] Qanun juga membentuk asas perubatan Unani, suatu bentuk perubatan tradisional yang diamalkan di India. Prinsip perubatan yang diterangkan Qanun sepuluh abad lalu masih diajar di UCLA dan Universiti Yale, antara lain, sebagai sebahagian sejarah perubatan.

Qanun juga dianggap farmakopeia pertama,[12][13] dan antara lain, buku ini dikenali untuk pengenalan pengujikajian sistematik dan pengkuantitian dalam pengkajian fisiologi,[14] penemuan sifat menular penyakit berjangkit, pengenalan kuarantin untuk mengehad penyebaran penyakit berjangkit, dan pengenalan perubatan berasaskan bukti, perubatan uji kaji,[15] ujian klinikal,[16] ujian terkawal terawak,[17][18] ujian kemujaraban,[19][20] farmakologi klinikal,[21] neuropsikiatri,[22] psikologi fisiologi,[23] dan idea sindrom dalam diagnosis penyakit tertentu.[24]

George Sarton, bapa sejarah sains, menulis dalam Pengenalan pada Sejarah Sains:

"Salah satu eksponen paling terkenal dari universalisme Muslim dan seorang tokoh terkemuka dalam belajar Islam Ibnu Sina, yang dikenali di Barat sebagai Avicenna (981-1037). Untuk seribu tahun beliau tetap mempunyai asli terkenal sebagai salah satu para pemikir terbesar dan ahli perubatan dalam sejarah. Karya-karya perubatan yang terpentingnya adalah Qanun (Kanon) dan sebuah risalah pada Kardiak. [ubat []] s. 'Qanun' adalah sebuah ensiklopedia besar ubat ini mengandungi beberapa pemikiran yang paling menerangi berkaitan dengan perbezaan mediastinitis dari pleurisy, sifat berjangkit dari tebece; pengedaran penyakit dengan air dan tanah; keterangan hati-hati masalah kulit, dari penyakit seksual dan penyimpangan; dari penyakit saraf".

Isi kandungan

[sunting] Overview

The book explains the causes of health and disease. Ibn Sina believed that the human body cannot be restored to health unless the causes of both health and disease are determined. He defined medicine (tibb) as follows:

"Medicine is the science by which we learn the various states of the body; in health, when not in health; the means by which health is likely to be lost; and, when lost, is likely to be restored. In other words, it is the art whereby health is concerned and the art by which it is restored after being lost."[25]

Avicenna regarded the causes of good health and diseases to be:

  1. The Material Causes
  2. The Elements
  3. The Humors
  4. The Variability of the Tumors
  5. The Temperaments
  6. The Psychic Faculties
  7. The Vital Force
  8. The Organs
  9. The Efficient Causes
  10. The Formal Causes
  11. The Vital Faculties
  12. The Final Causes

The Qanun distinguishes mediastinitis from pleurisy and recognises the contagious nature of phthisis (tuberculosis of the lung) and the spread of disease by water and soil. It gives a scientific diagnosis of ankylostomiasis and attributes the condition to an intestinal worm. The Qanun points out the importance of dietetics, the influence of climate and environment on health, and the surgical use of oral anaesthetics.[26] Ibn Sina advised surgeons to treat cancer in its earliest stages, ensuring the removal of all the diseased tissue.[27] The Qanun 's materia medica considers some 800 tested drugs, with comments on their application and effectiveness.[6] He recommended the testing of a new drug on animals and humans prior to general use.

The earliest known copy of the Canon of Medicine dated 1052 is held in the collection of the Aga Khan and is to be housed in the Aga Khan Museum planned for Toronto, Ontario, Canada.

[sunting] Influence in Western world

The Arabic text of the Persian Qanun was translated into Latin as Canon medicinae by Gerard of Cremona in the 12th century and into Hebrew in 1279. Henceforth the Canon served as the chief guide to medical science in the West and is said to have influenced Leonardo da Vinci. Its encyclopaedic content, its systematic arrangement and philosophical plan soon worked its way into a position of pre-eminence in the medical literature of Europe, displacing the works of Galen and becoming the text book for medical education in the schools of Europe. The text was read in the medical schools at Montpellier and Leuven as late as 1650, and Arnold C. Klebs described it as "one of the most significant intellectual phenomena of all times." In the words of Dr. William Osler, the Qanun has remained "a medical bible for a longer time than any other work". The first three books of the Latin Canon were printed in 1472, and a complete edition appeared in 1473. The 1491 Hebrew edition is the first appearance of a medical treatise in Hebrew and the only one produced during the 15th century. In the last 30 years of the 15th century it passed through 15 Latin editions. In recent years, a partial translation into English was made.

The influential Canadian physician, Sir William Osler, described the Canon as "the most famous medical textbook ever written" noting that it remained "a medical bible for a longer time than any other work."[28] In 2006, Professor John Urquhart noted the relevance of the Canon to modern medicine, comparing it to an influential medical work of the 19th century, The Principles and Practice of Medicine (1892) by Osler himself, and concluded:

"If the year were 1900 and you were marooned and in need of a guide for practical medicine, which book would you want by your side?" My choice was Ibn Sina. A leading reason is that Ibn Sina gives an integrated view of surgery and medicine, whereas Osler largely shuns intervention. Ibn Sina, for example, tells how to judge the margin of healthy tissue to take with an amputation, a basic topic uncovered by Osler. The gap between medicine and surgery is now closing, with the advent of interventional cardiology, gastroenterology, radiology, etc. Ibn Sina correctly saw medicine and surgery as one.[29]

Mona Nasser Aida Tibi and Emilie Savage-Smith note: "The enduring respect in the 21st century for a book written a millennium earlier is testimony to Ibn Sina's achievement."[30]

[sunting] Experimental medicine

The Canon of Medicine was the first book dealing with evidence-based medicine, experimental medicine,[15] clinical trials, randomized controlled trials,[17][18] efficacy tests,[19][20] risk factor analysis, and the idea of a syndrome in the diagnosis of specific diseases.[24]

According to Toby Huff and A. C. Crombie, the Canon contained "a set of rules that laid down the conditions for the experimental use and testing of drugs" which were "a precise guide for practical experimentation" in the process of "discovering and proving the effectiveness of medical substances."[15]

[sunting] Clinical pharmacology

The emphasis of the Canon on tested medicines laid the foundations for an experimental approach to pharmacology.[31] The Canon laid out the following rules and principles for testing the effectiveness of new drugs and medications, which still form the basis of clinical pharmacology[21] and modern clinical trials:[16]

  1. "The drug must be free from any extraneous accidental quality."
  2. "It must be used on a simple, not a composite, disease."
  3. "The drug must be tested with two contrary types of diseases, because sometimes a drug cures one disease by Its essential qualities and another by its accidental ones."
  4. "The quality of the drug must correspond to the strength of the disease. For example, there are some drugs whose heat is less than the coldness of certain diseases, so that they would have no effect on them."
  5. "The time of action must be observed, so that essence and accident are not confused."
  6. "The effect of the drug must be seen to occur constantly or in many cases, for if this did not happen, it was an accidental effect."
  7. "The experimentation must be done with the human body, for testing a drug on a lion or a horse might not prove anything about its effect on man."

The Canon lists 800 tested drugs, including plant and mineral substances, with comments on their application and effectiveness. For each one, he described their pharmaceutical actions from a range of 22 possibilities (including resolution, astringency and softening), and their specific properties according to a grid of 11 types of diseases.[6]

[sunting] Inductive logic

While Ibn Sina often relied on deductive reasoning in The Book of Healing and other writings on logic in Islamic philosophy, he used a different approach in The Canon of Medicine. This text contributed to the development of inductive logic, which it used to develop the idea of a syndrome in the diagnosis of specific diseases. The Canon of Medicine was the first to describe the methods of agreement, difference and concomitant variation which are critical to inductive logic and the scientific method.[24][32][33]

[sunting] Pharmaceutical sciences

The book's contribution to the pharmaceutical sciences include the introduction of systematic experimentation and quantification into pharmacology and the study of physiology,[34] the introduction of experimental medicine, evidence-based medicine, clinical trials,[16] randomized controlled trials,[17][18] efficacy tests[19][20] and clinical pharmacology;[21] the first careful descriptions of skin troubles, sexually transmitted diseases, perversions and nervous ailments; and the discovery of the healing property of gaseous mercury besides its poisonous quality;[35] as well as the use of ice to treat fevers, and the separation of medicine from pharmacology, which was important to the development of the pharmaceutical sciences.[36]

Pharmacotherapy

Avicenna wrote a separate supplement treatise dedicated to the pharmacotherapy of "Hindiba", a compound drug he suggested for the treatment of cancer and other tumors (see Cancer therapy below) and which could also be used for treating other neoplastic disorders. He gives details on the drug's properties and uses, and then gives instructions on its preparation as medication.[37]

Pharmacy

The Canon described no less than 700 preparations of medications, their properties, mode of action and their indications. He devoted in fact a whole volume to simple and compound drugs in The Canon of Medicine. It credits many of them to a variety of Arabic, Greek and Indian authors, and also includes some drugs imported from China, along with many of Ibn Sina's own original contributions. Using his own expertise, he was often critical of the descriptions given by previous authors and revised many of their descriptions.[6]

[sunting] Anatomy and Physiology

The contributions of the Canon to physiology include the introduction of systematic experimentation and quantification into the study of physiology.[34]

Writings on anatomy in the Canon are scattered throughout the text in sections regarding to illnesses related to certain body parts. The Canon included numerous discussions on anatomy and diagrams on certain body parts, including the first diagrams of the cranial sutures.[38]

[sunting] Blood pressure

Avicenna dedicated a chapter of the Canon to blood pressure. He was able to discover the causes of bleeding and haemorrhage, and discovered that haemorrhage could be induced by high blood pressure because of higher levels of cholesterol in the blood. This led him to investigate methods of controlling blood pressure.[35]

[sunting] Dissection

The Canon distinguished anatomy "from other aspects of medicine by its need for a different methodology." It thus stated:[39]

"As for the parts of the body and their functions, it is necessary that they be approached through observation (hiss) and dissection (tashrih), while those things that must be conjectured and demonstrated by reason are diseases and their particular causes and their symptoms and how disease can be abated and health maintained."

[sunting] Neuroanatomy and neurophysiology

Avicenna discovered the cerebellar vermis—which he named "vermis"—and the caudate nucleus, which he named "tailed nucleus" or "nucleus caudatus". These terms are still used in modern neuroanatomy and neurophysiology.[35]

The Canon was also the earliest text to note that intellectual dysfunctions were largely due to deficits in the brain's middle ventricle, and that the frontal lobe of the brain mediated common sense and reasoning.[40]

[sunting] Ophthalmology

The contributions of the Canon to ophthalmology in medieval Islam include its descriptions and explanations on the physiology of eye movements, which still forms a basis of information for modern ophthalmology. He also provided useful information on the optic nerves, iris, and central and peripheral facial paralyses.[35]

Another contribution the Canon made to ophthalmology was the suggestion that "the optic nerves did cross."[3]

[sunting] Cardiovascular system

In its explanation of the cardiovascular system, The Canon of Medicine "erroneously accepted the Greek notion regarding the existence of a hole in the ventricular septum by which the blood traveled between the ventricles." This would not be corrected until Ibn al-Nafis' Commentary on Anatomy in Avicenna's Canon provides the first description of the pulmonary circulation in 1242.[7] Ibn al-Nafis also criticized the Canon for its "statement that the blood that is in the right side is to nourish the heart", which he replaced with a theory showing insight into the coronary circulation: "the nourishment to the heart is from the blood that goes through the vessels that permeate the body of the heart."[41] Despite these criticisms, Avicenna "had a vision of blood circulation," and "correctly wrote on the cardiac cycles and valvular function."[7]

[sunting] Cardiology

In cardiology, The Canon of Medicine is the first book to mention the vasovagal syncope and carotid sinus hypersensitivity. According to several scholars, "Article 5 from Book III of this encyclopedia described drop attacks following compression of the carotid artery, yawning, fatigue and flushing, which together resemble neurogenic syncope. Such a description is most likely the first mention of carotid sinus hypersensitivity and vasovagal syncope." The chapter was dedicated to “brain diseases effecting intentional movements”, and refers to carotid sinus hypersensitivity as Al-Lawa, meaning "torsion".[7]

[sunting] Pulsology and sphygmology

The Canon was a pioneering text in pulsology and sphygmology. In ancient times, Galen as well as Chinese physicians erroneously believed that there was a unique type of pulse for every organ of the body and for every disease.[42] Galen also erroneously believed that "every part of an artery pulsates simultaneously" and that the motion of the pulse was due to natural motions (the arteries expanding and contracting naturally) as opposed to foced motions (the heart causing the arteries to either expand or contract).[43]

The first correct explanation of pulsation was given by Avicenna, after he refined Galen's theory of the pulse and discovered the following in The Canon of Medicine:[42]

"Every beat of the pulse comprises two movements and two pauses. Thus, expansion : pause : contraction : pause. [...] The pulse is a movement in the heart and arteries ... which takes the form of alternate expansion and contraction."

The Canon also pioneered the modern approach of examining the pulse through the examination of the wrist, which is still practiced in modern times. His reasons for choosing the wrist as the ideal location is due to it being easily available and the patient not needing to be distressed at the exposure of his/her body. The Latin translation of his Canon also laid the foundations for the later invention of the sphygmograph.[44]

Avicenna also wrote a supplemental treatise on diagnosing diseases using only the methods of feeling the pulse and observing inhalation. He was often capable of finding the symptoms of certain diseases only by feeling a patient's pulse.[35]

[sunting] Etiology and Pathology

In etiology and pathology, the Canon described the contagious nature of infectious diseases such as phthisis and tuberculosis, the distribution of disease by water and soil, and the existence of sexually transmitted disease.[45] The Canon provides a full understanding of the pathology of contagious disease.[46]

The Canon also distinguished between mediastinitis and pleurisy, provided careful descriptions of skin troubles, perversions, and nervous ailments." Meningitis was also first described in The Canon of Medicine, which also described the first known treatments for cancer.[27] The book also recognized the parasitic diseases of Ascaris, Enterobius, tapeworms, and Guinea worms.[47]

Since the Canon, Bimaristan hospitals were created with separate wards for specific illnesses, so that people with contagious diseases could be kept away from other patients who do not have any contagious diseases.[46]

[sunting] Bacteriology and microbiology

The Canon stated that bodily secretions are contaminated by "foul foreign earthly bodies" before a person becomes infected, but he did not view these bodies as primary causes of disease.[48]

[sunting] Cancer therapy

In cancer therapy, the Canon recognized cancer as a tumor. He noted that a "cancerous tumour progressively increases in size, is destructive and spreads roots which insinuate themselves amongst the tissue elements." He also attempted the earliest known treatments for cancer. One method he discovered was the "Hindiba", a herbal compound drug which Ibn al-Baitar later identified as having "anticancer" properties and which could also treat other tumors and neoplastic disorders.[37] After recognizing its usefulness in treating neoplastic disorders, Hindiba was patented in 1997 by Nil Sari, Hanzade Dogan, and John K. Snyder.[49] The preferred medication the Canon recommended for skin cancer and skin conditions in general was zinc oxide.[50]

Another method for treating cancer first described in the Canon was a surgical treatment. It stated that the excision should be radical and that all diseased tissue should be removed, which included the use of amputation or the removal of veins running in the direction of the tumor. He also recommended the use of cauterization for the area being treated if necessary.[27] However, the Canon notes that surgery should only be used as a last resort and that caution should be taken, pointing out that "most of the time, excision increases the cancer."[50]

The Canon was also the first to describe the symptoms of esophageal cancer and the first to refer to it as "cancer of the esophagus."[51]

[sunting] Hepatology

The advances of the Canon in hepatology includes its introduction of new methods of hepatitis treatment.[35]

[sunting] Quarantine

The Canon introduced quarantine as a means of limiting the spread of contagious diseases.[16]

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[sunting] Lihat juga

[sunting] Nota dan rujukan

  1. ↑ 百度百科. "回回药方". http://baike.baidu.com/view/404079.html. Capaian 27 Mei 2009. 
  2. ↑ "Preliminary Investigation of Incomplete Manuscripts of Hui Hui Yi Yao", Chinese Electronic Periodical Services 22 (4), November 2005, http://www.ceps.com.tw/ec/ecjnlarticleView.aspx?atliid=286907&issueiid=22254&jnliid=2883, capaian 2009-10-05 
  3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 Finger, Stanley (199 4), Origins of Neuroscience: A History of Explorations Into Brain Function, Oxford University Press, ISBN 0195146948 
  4. ↑ Islamic Golden Age - Medicine
  5. ↑ Hakeem Abdul Hameed, Exchanges between India and Central Asia in the field of Medicine
  6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 6.2 6.3 Jacquart, Danielle, "Islamic Pharmacology in the Middle Ages: Theories and Substances", European Review 16 (2) 
  7. ↑ 7.0 7.1 7.2 7.3 Mohammadali M. Shojaa, R. Shane Tubbsb, Marios Loukasc, Majid Khalilid, Farid Alakbarlie, Aaron A. Cohen-Gadola (29 May 2009), "Vasovagal syncope in the Canon of Avicenna: The first mention of carotid artery hypersensitivity", International Journal of Cardiology (Elsevier) 134 (3), doi:10.1016/j.ijcard.2009.02.035 
  8. ↑ 8.0 8.1 ""The Canon of Medicine" (work by Avicenna)". Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008. http://www.britannica.com/eb/topic-92902/The-Canon-of-Medicine. Capaian 2009-06-11. 
  9. ↑ Ziauddin Sardar, Science in Islamic philosophy
  10. ↑ Amber Haque (2004), "Psychology from Islamic Perspective: Contributions of Early Muslim Scholars and Challenges to Contemporary Muslim Psychologists", Journal of Religion and Health 43 (4): 357-377 [375]
  11. ↑ Jan Van Alphen, Anthony Aris, Fernand Meyer, Mark De Fraeye (1995), Oriental Medicine, Serindia Publications, ISBN 0906026369 
  12. ↑ Philip K. Hitti (cf. Dr. Kasem Ajram (1992), Miracle of Islamic Science, Appendix B, Knowledge House Publishers. ISBN 0911119434).
  13. ↑ Dr. Z. Idrisi, PhD (2005). The Muslim Agricultural Revolution and its influence on Europe. The Foundation for Science, Technology and Civilization, UK.
  14. ↑ Katharine Park (March 1990). "Avicenna in Renaissance Italy: The Canon and Medical Teaching in Italian Universities after 1500 oleh Nancy G. Siraisi", The Journal of Modern History 62 (1), m/s. 169-170:

    "Students of the history of medicine know him for his attempts to introduce systematic experimentation and quantification into the study of physiology."

  15. ↑ 15.0 15.1 15.2 Huff, Toby (2003), The Rise of Early Modern Science: Islam, China, and the West, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0521529948 
  16. ↑ 16.0 16.1 16.2 16.3 David W. Tschanz, MSPH, PhD (Ogos 2003). "Arab Roots of European Medicine", Heart Views 4 (2).
  17. ↑ 17.0 17.1 17.2 Jonathan D. Eldredge (2003), "The Randomised Controlled Trial design: unrecognized opportunities for health sciences librarianship", Health Information and Libraries Journal 20, m/s. 34–44 [36].
  18. ↑ 18.0 18.1 18.2 Bernard S. Bloom, Aurelia Retbi, Sandrine Dahan, Egon Jonsson (2000), "Evaluation Of Randomized Controlled Trials On Complementary And Alternative Medicine", International Journal of Technology Assessment in Health Care 16 (1), m/s. 13–21 [19].
  19. ↑ 19.0 19.1 19.2 D. Craig Brater and Walter J. Daly (2000), "Clinical pharmacology in the Middle Ages: Principles that presage the 21st century", Clinical Pharmacology & Therapeutics 67 (5), m/s. 447-450 [449].
  20. ↑ 20.0 20.1 20.2 Walter J. Daly and D. Craig Brater (2000), "Medieval contributions to the search for truth in clinical medicine", Perspectives in Biology and Medicine 43 (4), m/s. 530–540 [536], Johns Hopkins University Press.
  21. ↑ 21.0 21.1 21.2 D. Craig Brater and Walter J. Daly (2000), "Clinical pharmacology in the Middle Ages: Principles that presage the 21st century", Clinical Pharmacology & Therapeutics 67 (5), m/s. 447-450 [448].
  22. ↑ Ralat petik: Tag <ref> tidak sah; teks bagi rujukan Workman tidak disediakan
  23. ↑ Ibrahim B. Syed PhD, "Islamic Medicine: 1000 years ahead of its times", Journal of the Islamic Medical Association, 2002 (2), m/s. 2-9 [7].
  24. ↑ 24.0 24.1 24.2 Lenn Evan Goodman (2003), Islamic Humanism, m/s. 155, Oxford University Press, ISBN 0195135806.
  25. ↑ Howell, Trevor H. (1987), "Avicenna and His Regimen of Old Age", Age and Ageing 16, doi:10.1093/ageing/16.1.58 
  26. ↑ The Canon of Medicine, The American Institute of Unani Medicine, 2003.
  27. ↑ 27.0 27.1 27.2 Patricia Skinner (2001), Unani-tibbi, Encyclopedia of Alternative Medicine
  28. ↑ Osler, William (2004), The Evolution Of Modern Medicine, Kessinger Publishing, ISBN 1419161539 
  29. ↑ Professor John Urquhart (14 January 2006), "How Islam changed medicine: Ibn Sina (Avicenna) saw medicine and surgery as one", BMJ 332, doi:10.1136/bmj.332.7533.120-b 
  30. ↑ Mona Nasser Aida Tibi, Emilie Savage-Smith (2009), "Ibn Sina's Canon of Medicine: 11th century rules for assessing the effects of drugs", Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine 102, doi:10.1258/jrsm.2008.08k040 
  31. ↑ Jacquart, Danielle, "Islamic Pharmacology in the Middle Ages: Theories and Substances", European Review 16 (2) 
  32. ↑ Lenn Evan Goodman (1992), Avicenna, p. 33, Routledge, ISBN 041501929X.
  33. ↑ James Franklin (2001), The Science of Conjecture: Evidence and Probability Before Pascal, pp. 177-8, Johns Hopkins University Press, ISBN 0801865697
  34. ↑ 34.0 34.1 Katharine Park (March 1990). "Avicenna in Renaissance Italy: The Canon and Medical Teaching in Italian Universities after 1500 by Nancy G. Siraisi", The Journal of Modern History 62 (1), p. 169-170.
  35. ↑ 35.0 35.1 35.2 35.3 35.4 35.5 Professor Dr. İbrahim Hakkı Aydin (2001), "Avicenna And Modern Neurological Sciences", Journal of Academic Researches in Religious Sciences 1 (2): 1-4.
  36. ↑ Bashar Saad, Hassan Azaizeh, Omar Said (October 2005). "Tradition and Perspectives of Arab Herbal Medicine: A Review", Evidence-based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 2 (4), p. 475-479 [476]. Oxford University Press.
  37. ↑ 37.0 37.1 Prof. Nil Sari (Istanbul University, Cerrahpasha Medical School) (06 June 2007). "Hindiba: A Drug for Cancer Treatment in Muslim Heritage". FSTC Limited. http://muslimheritage.com/topics/default.cfm?ArticleID=707. 
  38. ↑ The Canon on Medicine, United States National Library of Medicine.
  39. ↑ Savage-Smith, Emilie (1995), "Attitudes Toward Dissection in Medieval Islam", Journal of the History of Medicine and Allied Sciences (Oxford University Press) 50 (1), doi:10.1093/jhmas/50.1.67 
  40. ↑ Millon, Theodore (2004), Masters of the Mind: Exploring the Story of Mental Illness from Ancient Times to the New Millennium, John Wiley & Sons, ISBN 0471679615 
  41. ↑ Husain F. Nagamia (2003), "Ibn al-Nafīs: A Biographical Sketch of the Discoverer of Pulmonary and Coronary Circulation", Journal of the International Society for the History of Islamic Medicine 1: 22–28.
  42. ↑ 42.0 42.1 Rachel Hajar (1999), "The Greco-Islamic Pulse", Heart Views 1 (4): 136-140 [138]
  43. ↑ Nahyan A. G. Fancy (2006), "Pulmonary Transit and Bodily Resurrection: The Interaction of Medicine, Philosophy and Religion in the Works of Ibn al-Nafīs (died 1288)", pp. 224-228, Electronic Theses and Dissertations, University of Notre Dame.[1]
  44. ↑ Rachel Hajar (1999), "The Greco-Islamic Pulse", Heart Views 1 (4): 136-140 [139-40]
  45. ↑ George Sarton, Introduction to the History of Science.
    (cf. Dr. A. Zahoor and Dr. Z. Haq (1997), Quotations From Famous Historians of Science, Cyberistan.
  46. ↑ 46.0 46.1 Medicine And Health, "Rise and Spread of Islam 622-1500: Science, Technology, Health", World Eras, Thomson Gale.
  47. ↑ Cox, Francis E. G. (June 2004), "History of human parasitic diseases", Infectious Disease Clinics of North America 18 (2), doi:10.1016/j.idc.2004.01.001 
  48. ↑ Ibrahim B. Syed, Ph.D. (2002). "Islamic Medicine: 1000 years ahead of its times", Journal of the Islamic Medical Association 2, p. 2-9.
  49. ↑ , US 5663196 Methods for treating neoplastic disorders
  50. ↑ Ralat petik: Tag <ref> tidak sah; teks bagi rujukan Harding tidak disediakan
  51. ↑ Saidi, F., MD (January 1999), "The Historical Basis for the AEsophageal Cancer Belt of South-Central Asia", Archives of Iranian Medicine 2 (1) 

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