Duluan kehakiman

Stare decisis (sebutan bahasa Latin: [ˈstareː ˈdekisis], sebutan bahasa Inggeris: [ˈstaːɹi dəˈsaɪsɪs], "untuk mengikut apa yang telah diputuskan") (lebih panjang, "stare decisis et non quieta movere") adalah satu perkataan undang-undang dalam bahasa Latin, yang digunakan dalam common law untuk menerangkan tanggapan bahawa keputusan mahkamah yang dahulu mesti diterima sebagai mengikat menurut undang-undang kes.

Doktrin ini tidak diterima dalam bidang kuasa sistem perundangan sivil kerana ia dikatakan melanggar hak para hakim menafsir undang-undang dan hak legislatif membuat undang-undang. Kebanyakan sistem sebegini walau bagaimanapun mengiktiraf konsep jurisprudence constante yang mengemukakan argumentasi bahawa walaupun para hakim bebas dalam membuat keputusan, mereka haruslah membuat keputusan itu dalam cara yang boleh dijangka dan tidak mendatangkan huru-hara. Oleh demikian, hak para hakim untuk menafsir undang-undang tidak bermakna tiadanya sejumlah kecil undang-undang kes terpilih yang mesti dirujuk semasa menbuat keputusan dalam sesuatu kes.

Prinsip

Prinsip stare decisis boleh dibahagikan mengikut dua komponen:

Pertamanya merupakan peraturan bahawa satu keputusan yang dibuat oleh mahkamah tinggi adalah duluan mengikat yang mahkamah rendah tidak boleh batalkan.

Keduanya merupakan prinsip yang satu mahkamah tidak seharusnya membatalkan suatu keputusan yang dibuat oleh dirinya sendiri pada suatu ketika dahulu kecualilah apabila terdapat satu alasan kuat untuk berbuat demikian. Prinsip kedua ini lebih berbentuk nasihat yang boleh dan sememangnya diketepikan mahkamah dari masa ke semasa.

Stare decisis secara menegak

Secara am, satu sistem common law mempunyai mahkamah perbicaraan, mahkamah rayuan dan mahkamah tinggi. Mahkamah-mahkamah rendah menadbirkan kebanyakan keadilan seharian. Mahkamah-mahkamah ini juga dimestikan mengikut duluan yang diputuskan mahkamah rayuan untuk kawasan mereka dan mahkamah tinggi.

Mahkamah rayuan hanya dimestikan mengikut keputusan mahkamah tinggi. Aplikasi doktrin stare decisis dari satu mahkamah tinggi pada mahkamah rendah kadangkala dirujuk sebagai stare decisis secara menegak.

Stare decisis secara mendatar

Dalam sistem kehakiman persekutuan Amerika Syarikat, mahkamah rayuan perantaraan dibahagikan mengikut "litar". Setiap panel hakim mesti mengikut capaian keputusan dalam kes rayuan yang terdahulu. Duluan mahkamah rayuan Amerika Syarikat hanya boleh ditolak oleh mahkamah en banc, iaitu satu sidangan kesemua hakim rayuan aktif litar berkenaan, atau Mahkamah Agung Amerika Syarikat.

Apabila satu mahkamah mengikat dirinya, aplikasi doktrin duluan ini kadangkala dipanggil stare decisis secara mendatar. Negeri New York mempunyai struktur rayuan yang serupa kerana ia terbahagi dalam empat jabatan rayuan yang diselia oleh mahkamah rayuan tertinggi Negeri New York. Keputusan satu jabatan rayuan tidak mengikat jabatan lain, dan dalam sesetengah kes jabatan -jabatan berkenaan mempunyai perbezaan secara signifikan dalam perkara-perkara asas undang-undang.

Tempat rayuan terakhir

Mahkamah tertinggi United Kingdom iaitu House of Lords tidak perlu mengikut keputusan lepasnya yang tersendiri sehingga kes London Street Tramways lwn London County Council [1898] AC 375. Selepas kes ini sebarang perubahan pada undang-undang berkenaan sesuatu perkara hanya boleh dipinda oleh Parlimen melalui statut.

Situasi ini berubah selepas pengeluaran Penyataan Pengamalan pada tahun 1966. Ia membenarkan House of Lords meminda undang-undang Inggeris bersesuaian peristiwa semasa. Dalam kes R lwn G & R pada tahun 2003 House of Lords menolak keputusannya dalam kes Caldwell 1981 yang telah membenarkan dirinya mendirikan mens rea ("minda yang bersalah") dengan menyukat kelakuan seseorang defenden berbanding "seorang waras" dengan tidak mengira keadaan sebenar minda defenden itu.

Walau bagaimanapun, Penyata Pengamalan amat jarang diaplikasi House of Lords dan hanya digunakan sebagai pilihan terakhir. Dari tahun 2005 House of Lords menolak keputusannya yang terdahulu tidak lebih daripada 20 kali kerana bimbang penggunaannya secara berlebihan akan memperkenalkan ketidakpastian dalam undang-undang. Dalam R v Kansal (2002) umpamanya majoriti ahli House of Lords berpendapat bahawa R v Lambert (kes terdahulu) diputuskan secara tidak betul akan tetapi tidak mahu menolak keputusan terdahulu mereka.

Aplikasi pada sistem perundangan Inggeris

The doctrine of binding precedent or stare decisis is central to the English legal system. A precedent is a statement made of the law by a Judge in deciding a case. The doctrine, states that within the hierarchy of the English courts a decision by a higher court will be binding on those lower than it. This means that when judges try a case they will check to see if a similar case has come before a court previously, and if there was a precedent set by an equal or higher court, then the judge should follow that precedent. If there is a precedent set in a lower court, the judge does not have to follow it, but may consider it. The House of Lords however does not have to follow its own precedents .

Only the statements of law are binding, this is known as the reason for the decision or ratio decidendi, all other reasons are by the way or obiter dictum see Rondel v. Worsley (1969) 1 AC 191 . A precedent does not bind a court if it was found there was a lack of care in the original “Per Incuriam”, for example if a statutory provision or precedent had not been brought to the courts decision. If a court finds a material difference between cases then it can choose not to be bound by the precedent. Persuasive precedents are those that have been set by courts lower in the hierarchy, they may be persuasive but are not binding ,. Most importantly precedents can be overruled, by a subsequent decision by a higher court or Act of Parliament, Judicial ruling is retrospective, whereas Act’s of Parliament are always Prospective unless stated.

The last situation brings about the greatest problem of the precedent system, in that if a higher court overrules a precedent that is quite old, then it is very likely that many cases that have been decided upon that precedent will return to court. Therefore, it becomes increasingly unlikely that a precedent is overruled the older it is.

Bagaimana para hakim menafsir duluan

There are three primary rules Judges in the UK may use for interpreting the law these are listed below, the normal aids that a judge has, include access to all previous cases, in which a precedent has been set and a good English dictionary.

The Literal Rule

The judge should do what the actual legislation says rather than trying to do what it means, the judge should use the plain everyday ordinary meaning for the words, even if this produces an unjust or undesirable outcome. A good example of the problems with this method is R v Maginnis (1987) in which several judges found several different dictionary meaning of the word supply.

The Golden Rule

Is used when use of the literal rule would obviously result in an absurd result, the court must find genuine difficulties before it declines to use the literal rule. There are two ways in which the Golden Rule can be applied;

a) The narrow meaning

When there are apparently, two contradictory meanings to a word used in a legislative provision or it is ambiguous. In such a case, the least absurd is to be used. For example Adler v George (1964) the defendant was found guilty under the Official Secrets Act 1920, the court choose not to take the wording literally.

b) The wider meaning This version of the golden rule is used when there is only one possible way in which the law should be interpreted. For example, when the Literal Rule would result in an absurdity. E.g. Re Sigsworth (1935).

The Mischief Rule

Is the most flexible of the interpretation methods, stemming from Heydon’s Case (1584), it allows the court to enforce what the statute is aimed at remedying rather than what the words actually say. For example Corkery v Carpernter (1950), in which a man was found guilty of being drunk in charge of a carriage, although in fact he only had a bicycle.

In addition to these three rules there are 3 other lesser rules, Ejusdem generis (the use of general words, “cats, dogs and other animals” other animals means other domesticated animals). Expressio unius est exculsio aleterius (the express mention of one or more things, implies the exclusion of all others) Noscitur a sociis (a word should take its meaning from the context in which it is found)

Pengelakan

And while lower courts are bound in theory by higher court precedent, in practice judges may sometimes attempt to evade precedents, by distinguishing them on spurious grounds. The appeal of a decision that does not follow precedent might not occur, however, as the expense of an appeal may prevent the losing party from doing so. Thus the lower court decision may stand even though it does not follow the higher court decision, as the only way a decision can enter the appeal process is by application of one of the parties bound by it.

…dan penentangan

Occasionally, the application of prior case law results in court decisions which the judge explicitly states personal disagreement with the judgment he or she has rendered, but that he or she is required to do so by binding precedent, that is, the issue at hand was already decided by a higher court. Note that binding precedent is thus distinct from stare decisis, which are decisions from lateral courts, lower courts, or the same court, and affords deviation based upon "compelling justification" (see Hilton v.s. Carolina Pub. Rys. Cmsn., 502 U.S. 197, 202, 112 S. Ct. 560, 565 (1991).)

Kepincangan

In the United States, stare decisis can interact in counterintuitive ways with the federal and state court systems. On an issue of federal law, a state court is not bound by an interpretation of federal law at the district or circuit level, but is bound by an interpretation by the United States Supreme Court. On an interpretation of state law, whether common law or statutory law, the federal courts are bound by the interpretation of a state court of last resort, and are normally required to defer to the precedents of intermediate state courts as well.

Courts may choose to follow precedents of other jurisdictions, but this is not an application of the doctrine of stare decisis, because foreign decisions are not binding. Rather, a foreign decision that is followed on the basis of the soundness of its reasoning will be called persuasive authority — indicating that its effect is limited to the persuasiveness of the reasons it provides.

Stare decisis dalam sistem perundangan sivil

Stare decisis is not usually a doctrine used in civil law systems, because it violates the principle that only the legislature may make law. In theory therefore, lower courts are generally not bound to precedents established by higher courts. In practice, the need to have predictability means that lower courts generally defer to precedents by higher courts and in a sense, the highest courts in civil law jurisdictions, such as the Cour de cassation and the Conseil d'État in France are recognized as being bodies of a quasi-legislative nature.

The doctrine of stare decisis also influences how court decisions are structured. In general, court decisions in common law jurisdictions are extremely wordy and go into great detail as to the how the decision was reached. This occurs to justify a court decision on the basis of previous case law as well as to make it easier to use the decision as a precedent in future cases.

By contrast, court decisions in some civil law jurisdictions (most prominently France) tend to be extremely brief, mentioning only the relevant legislation and not going into great detail about how a decision was reached. This is the result of the theoretical view that the court is only interpreting the view of the legislature and that detailed exposition is unnecessary. Because of this, much more of the exposition of the law is done by academic jurists which provide the explanations that in common law nations would be provided by the judges themselves.

In other civil law jurisdictions, such as the German-speaking countries, court opinions tend to be much longer than in France, and courts will frequently cite previous cases and academic writing. However, some courts (such as German courts) put less emphasis of the particular facts of the case than common law courts, but put more emphasis on the discussion of various doctrinal arguments and on finding what the correct interpretation of the law is.

Ketulenan dan stare decisis

Originalism - the doctrine that holds that the meaning of a written text must be applied - is in tension with stare decisis, but is not necessarily irrevocably opposed. As noted at top, "Stare decisis is not usually a doctrine used in civil law systems, because it violates the principle that only the legislature may make law"; Justice Antonin Scalia argues in A Matter of Interpretation that America is a civil law not common law nation, and with that in mind, it should come as no surprise that originalists are generally unwilling to defer to precedent when precedent seems to come into conflict with the constitution. However, Originalism being a theory of interpretation rather than construction, there is still room within an originalist paradigm for stare decisis; whenever the plain meaning of the text is open to alternative constructions, past precedent is generally seen as a valid guide, with the qualifier being that it cannot trump what the text actually says.

Some originalists go even further. In his confirmation hearings, Justice Clarence Thomas answered a question from Senator Strom Thurmond about his willingness to overturn precedent thus:

I think overruling a case or reconsidering a case is a very serious matter. Certainly, you would have to be of the view that a case is incorrectly decided, but I think even that is not adequate. There are some cases that you may not agree with that should not be overruled. Stare decisis provides continuity to our system, it provides predictability, and in our process of case-by-case decision-making, I think it is a very important and critical concept. A judge that wants to reconsider a case and certainly one who wants to overrule a case has the burden of demonstrating that not only is the case indirect, but that it would be appropriate, in view of stare decisis, to make that additional step of overruling that case.

Possibly he has changed his mind, or there are a very large body of cases which merit "the additional step" of ignoring the doctrine; according to Scalia, "Clarence Thomas doesn't believe in stare decisis, period. If a constitutional line of authority is wrong, he would say, let’s get it right."

Kebaikan dan keburukan

There is much discussion about the virtue and irrationality of using case law under such a system. Supporters of the system, such as minimalists, argue that following precedent makes decisions "predictable." For example, a business person can be reasonably assured of predicting a decision where the facts of his or her case are sufficiently similar to a previously decided case. An argument often used against the system is that it is undemocratic as it allows unelected judges to make law, or that it preserves wrongly decided cases. A counter-argument (in favor of the concept of stare decicis) is that if the legislature wishes to alter the case law (other than constitutional interpretations) by statute, the legislature is empowered to do so. Critics sometimes accuse particular judges of applying the doctrine selectively, invoking it to support precedents which the judge supported anyway, but ignoring it in order to overturn precedents with which the judge disagreed.