Bahasa-bahasa Jerman: Perbezaan antara semakan

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Baris 431: Baris 431:
[[af:Germaanse tale]]
[[af:Germaanse tale]]
[[als:Germanische Sprachen]]
[[als:Germanische Sprachen]]
[[an:Luengas chermanicas]]
[[ar:لغات جرمانية]]
[[ar:لغات جرمانية]]
[[an:Luengas chermanicas]]
[[ast:Llingües xermániques]]
[[ast:Llingües xermániques]]
[[az:Alman qrupu]]
[[az:Alman qrupu]]
[[bn:জার্মানীয় ভাষাসমূহ]]
[[zh-min-nan:Tek-gí-hē]]
[[be-x-old:Германскія мовы]]
[[be-x-old:Германскія мовы]]
[[br:Yezhoù germanek]]
[[bg:Германски езици]]
[[bg:Германски езици]]
[[bn:জার্মানীয় ভাষাসমূহ]]
[[br:Yezhoù germanek]]
[[ca:Llengües germàniques]]
[[ca:Llengües germàniques]]
[[cs:Germánské jazyky]]
[[cs:Germánské jazyky]]
Baris 445: Baris 444:
[[da:Germanske sprog]]
[[da:Germanske sprog]]
[[de:Germanische Sprachen]]
[[de:Germanische Sprachen]]
[[et:Germaani keeled]]
[[el:Γερμανικές γλώσσες]]
[[el:Γερμανικές γλώσσες]]
[[en:Germanic languages]]
[[en:Germanic languages]]
[[es:Lenguas germánicas]]
[[eo:Ĝermana lingvo]]
[[eo:Ĝermana lingvo]]
[[es:Lenguas germánicas]]
[[et:Germaani keeled]]
[[eu:Germaniar hizkuntzak]]
[[eu:Germaniar hizkuntzak]]
[[fa:زبان‌های ژرمنی]]
[[fa:زبان‌های ژرمنی]]
[[fi:Germaaniset kielet]]
[[fo:Germansk mál]]
[[fo:Germansk mál]]
[[fr:Langue germanique]]
[[fr:Langue germanique]]
[[fy:Germaanske talen]]
[[fy:Germaanske talen]]
[[gl:Lingua xermánica]]
[[gl:Lingua xermánica]]
[[he:שפות גרמאניות]]
[[ko:게르만어파]]
[[hsb:Germanske rěče]]
[[hr:Germanski jezici]]
[[hr:Germanski jezici]]
[[id:Bahasa Jermanik]]
[[hsb:Germanske rěče]]
[[hu:Germán nyelvek]]
[[ia:Linguas germanic]]
[[ia:Linguas germanic]]
[[id:Bahasa Jermanik]]
[[is:Germönsk tungumál]]
[[is:Germönsk tungumál]]
[[it:Lingue germaniche]]
[[it:Lingue germaniche]]
[[ja:ゲルマン語派]]
[[he:שפות גרמאניות]]
[[ka:გერმანიკული ენები]]
[[kn:ಜರ್ಮನಿಕ್ ಭಾಷೆಗಳು]]
[[kn:ಜರ್ಮನಿಕ್ ಭಾಷೆಗಳು]]
[[ko:게르만어파]]
[[ka:გერმანული ენები]]
[[kw:Yethow germanek]]
[[kw:Yethow germanek]]
[[sw:Kigermanik]]
[[la:Linguae Germanicae]]
[[la:Linguae Germanicae]]
[[lt:Germanų kalbos]]
[[li:Germaanse taole]]
[[li:Germaanse taole]]
[[hu:Germán nyelvek]]
[[lt:Germanų kalbos]]
[[mk:Германски јазици]]
[[mk:Германски јазици]]
[[nds:Germaansche Spraken]]
[[nl:Germaanse talen]]
[[nl:Germaanse talen]]
[[nn:Germanske språk]]
[[ja:ゲルマン語派]]
[[no:Germanske språk]]
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[[nn:Germanske språk]]
[[nrm:Langue Gèrmannique]]
[[nrm:Langue Gèrmannique]]
[[oc:Lengas germanicas]]
[[oc:Lengas germanicas]]
[[nds:Germaansche Spraken]]
[[pl:Języki germańskie]]
[[pl:Języki germańskie]]
[[pt:Línguas germânicas]]
[[pt:Línguas germânicas]]
[[ro:Limbile germanice]]
[[ro:Limbile germanice]]
[[ru:Германские языки]]
[[ru:Германские языки]]
[[sco:Germanic leid]]
[[se:Germánalaš gielat]]
[[se:Germánalaš gielat]]
[[sco:Germanic leid]]
[[sh:Germanski jezici]]
[[simple:Germanic languages]]
[[simple:Germanic languages]]
[[sk:Germánske jazyky]]
[[sk:Germánske jazyky]]
[[sl:Germanski jeziki]]
[[sl:Germanski jeziki]]
[[sh:Germanski jezici]]
[[fi:Germaaniset kielet]]
[[sv:Germanska språk]]
[[sv:Germanska språk]]
[[sw:Kigermanik]]
[[vi:Nhóm ngôn ngữ gốc Đức]]
[[tg:Забонҳои германӣ]]
[[tg:Забонҳои германӣ]]
[[tpi:Ol Tokples Siamanik]]
[[tpi:Ol Tokples Siamanik]]
[[tr:Cermen dilleri]]
[[tr:Cermen dilleri]]
[[uk:Германські мови]]
[[uk:Германські мови]]
[[vi:Nhóm ngôn ngữ gốc Đức]]
[[vls:Germaansche toaln]]
[[vls:Germaansche toaln]]
[[zh:日耳曼语族]]
[[zh:日耳曼语族]]
[[zh-min-nan:Tek-gí-hē]]

Semakan pada 04:51, 7 Februari 2008

Bahasa Jermanik
Bahasa Teutonik
Taburan
geografi:
Pada asal di Eropah utara, barat, dan tengah; kini di seluruh dunia
Klasifikasi bahasa:Indo-Eropah
  • Bahasa Jermanik
Pembahagian:
ISO 639-2 / 5:gem

Bahasa-bahasa Jermanik merupakan sekumpulan bahasa berkaitan yang sebagai cawangan keluarga bahasa Indo-Eropah. Nenek moyang umum untuk bahasa-bahasa dalam cawangan ini ialah Bahasa Proto-Jermanik, dituturkan pada kira-kira ahkir pertengahan milenia pertama Sebelum Masihi di Eropah utara Zaman Besi. Proto-Jermanik, dengan semua keturunannya, disifatkan dengan sebilangan ciri-ciri linguistik yang unik, yang terkenal ialah perubahan konsonan yang dikenali sebagai hukum Grimm. Pelbagai jenis bahasa Jermanik awal memasuki sejarah dengan suku-suku Jermanik yang tinggal di Eropah utara bersempadan dengan Empayar Rom sejak abad ke-2.

Bahasa-bahasa Jermanik yang terbesar ialah Bahasa Inggeris dan Bahasa Jerman, masing-masing dengan kira-kira 400 juta dan 100 juta orang penutur bahasa ibunda. Kumpulan ini juga terdiri daripada bahasa-bahasa utama yang lain, seperti Bahasa Belanda dengan 22 juta dan Bahasa Afrikaans dengan lebih daripada 16 juta orang penutur; dan Bahasa-bahasa Jermanik Utara termasuk Bahasa Norway, Bahasa Denmark, Bahasa Sweden, Bahasa Iceland, dan Bahasa Faroe dengan jumlah kira-kira 20 juta orang penutur. Etnologi SIL menyenaraikan 53 bahasa Jermanik yang berbeza.

Ciri- ciri Bahasa Jerman mempunyai beberapa ciri-ciri yang unik seperi berikut ;

1. Kata kerja peringkat Indo-European (IE) dan sistem aspek kedalam kata kerja sekarang (present tense) dan kata kerja lampau (past tense) (juga dikenali sebagai kata kerja kala lampau ( preterite ) ) 2. Banyak pengkelasan kata kerja yang menggunakan imbuhan dental (/d/ or /t/) sebaliknya huruf vokal pinggiran digunakan (Indo-European ablaut) untuk menunjukkan kata kerja lampau ; perkataan ini dikenali sebagai kata kerja jermanik lemah the Germanic weak verbs; baki kata kerja yang lain dengan ablaut vokal adalam kata kerja Jemanik Kuat theGermanic strong verbs 3. The use of so-called strong and weak adjectives: different sets of inflectional endings for adjectives depending on the definiteness of the noun phrase; (modern English adjectives do not inflect at all, except for the comparative and superlative; this was not the case in Old English, where adjectives were inflected differently depending on whether they were preceded by an article or demonstrative) 4. The consonant shift known as Grimm's Law; (the consonants in High German have shifted farther yet by the High German consonant shift) 5. A number of words with etymologies that are difficult to link to other Indo-European families, but variants of which appear in almost all Germanic languages, See Germanic substrate hypothesis 6. The shifting of stress accent onto the root of the stem and later to the first syllable of the word, (though English has an irregular stress, native words always have a fixed stress regardless of what is added to them) Germanic languages differ from each other to a greater degree than do some other language families such as the Romance or Slavic languages. Roughly speaking, Germanic languages differ in how conservative or how progressive each language is with respect to an overall trend toward analyticity. Some, such as German, Dutch, and Icelandic have preserved much of the complex inflectional morphology inherited from the Proto-Indo-European language. Others, such as English, Swedish, and Afrikaans have moved toward a largely analytic type. Another characteristic of Germanic languages is the verb second or V2 word order, which is quite uncommon cross-linguistically. This feature is shared by all modern Germanic languages except modern English (which nevertheless appears to have had V2 earlier in its history), but has largely replaced the structure with an overall Subject Verb Object syntax.


Writing

The earliest evidence of Germanic languages comes from names recorded in the first century by Tacitus (especially from his work Germania), but the earliest Germanic writing occurs in a single instance in the second century BC on the Negau helmet[1]. From roughly the second century AD, certain speakers of early Germanic varieties developed the Elder Futhark, an early form of the runic alphabet. Early runic inscriptions also are largely limited to personal names, and difficult to interpret. The Gothic language was written in the Gothic alphabet developed by Bishop Ulfilas for his translation of the Bible in the fourth century. Later, Christian priests and monks who spoke and read Latin in addition to their native Germanic varieties began writing the Germanic languages with slightly modified Latin letters. However, throughout the Viking Age, runic alphabets remained in common use in Scandinavia.

In addition to the standard Latin alphabet, various Germanic languages use a variety of accent marks and extra letters, including umlauts, the ß (Eszett), IJ, Ø, Æ, Å, Ä, Ö, Ð, Ȝ, and Þ and Ƿ, from runes. Historic printed German is frequently set in blackletter typefaces (e.g. fraktur or schwabacher).

Diachronic

General Note: The table shows the succession of the significant historical stages of each language (vertically), and their approximate groupings in subfamilies (horizontally). Horizontal sequence within each group does not imply a measure of greater or lesser similarity.

Iron Age
500 BC–AD 200
Proto-Germanic
East Germanic West Germanic North Germanic
South Germanic Anglo-Frisian
Migration period
AD 200–700
Gothic, Lombardic1   Old Frankish Old Saxon Old Frisian Old English Proto-Norse
Vandalic, Burgundian, Old High German
Early Middle Ages
700–1100
Old Low Franconian Runic Old West Norse Runic Old East Norse
Middle Ages
1100–1350
Middle High German Middle Dutch Middle Low German Middle English Old Icelandic Old Norwegian Early Old Danish Early Old Swedish Early Old Gutnish
Late Middle Ages2
1350–1500
Early New High German Middle English Early Scots Late Old Icelandic Old Faroese Old Norn Middle Norwegian Late Old Danish Late Old Swedish Late Old Gutnish
Early Modern Age
1500–1700
Crimean Gothic Low Franconian varieties, including Dutch Middle Frisian Early Modern English Middle Scots Icelandic Faroese Norn Norwegian Danish Swedish Gutnish
Modern Age
1700 to present
all extinct High German varieties Low Saxon varieties Frisian varieties English varieties Scots varieties extinct3 extinct3

Note 1: There are conflicting opinions on the classification of Lombardic. Contrary to its isolated position in the table above, it also has been classified as close to either Upper German or Old Saxon. See the article on the Lombardic language for more information.

Note 2: Late Middle Ages refers to the post-Black Death period. Especially for the language situation in Norway this event was important.

Note 3: The speakers of Norn were assimilated to speak the Modern Scots varieties, and the Gutnish language today, is practically a dialect of Swedish.

Contemporary

Mentioned here are all the principal and some secondary contemporary varieties; individual articles linked to below, may contain larger family trees. For example, many Low Saxon varieties are discussed on Low Saxon besides just Northern Low Saxon and Plautdietsch.

Alternate classification of contemporary North Germanic languages

Perbandingan kosa kata

Bahasa Inggeris Bahasa Scots Bahasa Frisia Barat Bahasa Afrikaans Bahasa Belanda Bahasa Saxon Rendah Bahasa Jerman Bahasa Goth Bahasa Iceland Bahasa Faroe Bahasa Sweden Bahasa Denmark Bahasa Norway (Bokmål) Bahasa Norway (Nynorsk)
Apple Aiple Apel Appel Appel Appel Apfel Aplus Epli Epl(i) [3] Äpple Æble Eple Eple
Board Buird Board Bord Bord Boord Brett / Bord [4] Baúrd Borð Borð Bord Bord Bord Bord
Beech Beech Boeke/ Boekebeam Beuk Beuk Böke Buche Bōka [5]/ -bagms Bók Bók Bok Bøg Bøk Bøk, Bok
Book Beuk Boek Boek Boek Book Buch Bōka Bók Bók Bok Bog Bok Bok
Breast Breest Boarst Bors Borst Bost Brust Brusts Brjóst Bróst Bröst Bryst Bryst Bryst
Brown Broun Brún Bruin Bruin Bruun Braun Bruns Brúnn Brúnur Brun Brun Brun Brun
Day Day Dei Dag Dag Dag Tag Dags Dagur Dagur Dag Dag Dag Dag
Dead Deid Dea Dood Dood Dood Tot Dauþs Dauður Deyður Död Død Død Daud
Die (Starve) Dee Stjerre Sterf Sterven Döen/ Starven Sterben Diwan Deyja Doyggja Døy
Enough Eneuch Genôch Genoeg Genoeg Noog Genug Ganōhs Nóg Nóg/ Nógmikið Nog Nok Nok Nok
Finger Finger Finger Vinger Vinger Finger Finger Figgrs Fingur Fingur Finger Finger Finger Finger
Give Gie Jaan Gee Geven Geven Geben Giban Gefa Geva Giva / Ge Give Gi Gje(va)
Glass Gless Glês Glas Glas Glas Glas Gler Glas Glas Glas Glass Glas
Gold Gowd Goud Goud Goud Gold Gold Gulþ Gull Gull Guld/ Gull Guld Gull Gull
Hand Haund Hân Hand Hand Hand Hand Handus Hönd Hond Hand Hånd Hånd Hand
Head Heid Holle Hoof [6]/ Kop[7] Hoofd/ Kop[7] Kopp[7] Haupt/ Kopf[7] Háubiþ Höfuð Høvd/ Høvur Huvud Hoved Hode Hovud
High Heich Heech Hoog Hoog Hoog Hoch Háuh Hár Høg/ur Hög Høj Høy/høg Høg
Home Hame Hiem Heim [8]/ Tuis[9] Heim [8]/Thuis[9] Heim Heim Háimōþ Heim Heim Hem Hjem Hjem/heim Heim
Hook Heuk Hoek Haak Haak Haak Haken Krappa/ Krampa Krókur Krókur/ Ongul Hake/ Krok Hage/ Krog Hake/ Krok Hake/ Krok[10]
House Hoose Hûs Huis Huis Huus Haus Hūs Hús Hús Hus Hus Hus Hus
Many Mony Mannich/Mennich Menige Menig Mennig Manch Manags Margir Mangir/ Nógvir Många Mange Mange Mange
Moon Muin Moanne Maan Maan Maan Mond Mēna Tungl/ Máni Máni/ Tungl Måne Måne Måne Måne
Night Nicht Nacht Nag Nacht Natt/ Nacht Nacht Nótt Nótt Natt Natt Nat Natt Natt
No Nae Nee Nee Nee(n) Nee Nein (Nö, Nee) Nei Nei Nej Nej Nei Nei
Old Auld Âld Oud Oud, Gammel [11] Oll Alt Sineigs Gamall (but: eldri, elstur) Gamal (but: eldri, elstur) Gammal (but: äldre, äldst) Gammel (but: ældre, ældst) Gammel (but: eldre, eldst) Gam(m)al (but: eldre, eldst)
One Ane Ien Een Een Een Eins Áins Einn Ein En En En Ein
Ounce Unce Ûns Ons Ons Ons Unze Unkja Únsa Únsa Uns Unse Unse Unse
Snow Snaw Snie Sneeu Sneeuw Snee Schnee Snáiws Snjór Kavi/ Snjógvur Snö Sne Snø Snø
Stone Stane Stien Steen Steen Steen Stein Stáins Steinn Steinur Sten Sten Stein Stein
That That Dat Dit, Daardie Dat, Die Dat (Dit) Das Þata Það Tað Det Det Det Det
Two/Twain Twa Twa Twee Twee Twee Zwei (Zwo) Twái Tveir/ Tvær/ Tvö Tveir (/Tvá) Två To To To [12]
Who Wha Wa Wie Wie Wokeen Wer Ƕas (Hwas) Hver Hvør Vem Hvem Hvem Kven
Worm Wirm Wjirm Wurm Wurm/ Worm Worm Wurm Maþa Maðkur, Ormur Maðkur/ Ormur Mask/ Orm [13] Orm Mark/ Makk/ Orm Mark/ Makk/ Orm [13]
Bahasa Inggeris Bahasa Scots Bahasa Frisia Barat Bahasa Afrikaans Bahasa Belanda Bahasa Saxon Rendah Bahasa Jerman Bahasa Goth Bahasa Iceland Bahasa Faroe Bahasa Sweden Bahasa Denmark Bahasa Norway (Bokmål) Bahasa Norway (Nynorsk)

Lihat juga

Catatan

  1. ^ Malcolm Todd (1992). The Early Germans. Blackwell Publishing.
  2. ^ Purely modern term; it contradicts contemporary usage, which designated Scottish English as Inglis (i.e. English), whereas Scottis (i.e., Scots) meant Gaelic. But such chronological terminology is widely used, for example, by Scottish Language Dictionaries Ltd. (Formally SNDA), Dr. Anne King of The University of Edinburgh and by The University of Glasgow. It also is used in The Oxford Companion to the English Language and The Cambridge History of English and American Literature
  3. ^ The cognate means 'potato'. The correct word is 'Súrepli'.
  4. ^ Brett used in Southern, Bord also used in Northern Germany
  5. ^ Attested meaning 'letter', but also means beech in other Germanic languages, cf. Russian buk 'beech', bukva 'letter', maybe from Gothic.
  6. ^ Now only used in compound words such as hoofpyn (headache) and metaphorically, such as hoofstad (capital city).
  7. ^ a b c d From an old Latin borrowing, akin to "cup".
  8. ^ a b Archaic: now only used in compound words such as 'heimwee' (homesickness).
  9. ^ a b From a compound phrase akin to "to house"
  10. ^ Ongel is also used for fishing hook.
  11. ^ Old and decayed.
  12. ^ Dialectally tvo/ två/ tvei (m), tvæ (f), tvau (n).
  13. ^ a b The cognate means 'snake'.

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