Bahasa-bahasa Jerman: Perbezaan antara semakan
Tiada ringkasan suntingan |
k bot Mengubah: ka:გერმანიკული ენები |
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[[af:Germaanse tale]] |
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[[als:Germanische Sprachen]] |
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[[ar:لغات جرمانية]] |
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[[ast:Llingües xermániques]] |
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[[az:Alman qrupu]] |
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[[bg:Германски езици]] |
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[[ca:Llengües germàniques]] |
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[[cs:Germánské jazyky]] |
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[[da:Germanske sprog]] |
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[[el:Γερμανικές γλώσσες]] |
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[[en:Germanic languages]] |
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[[eo:Ĝermana lingvo]] |
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[[eu:Germaniar hizkuntzak]] |
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[[fa:زبانهای ژرمنی]] |
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[[fo:Germansk mál]] |
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[[fr:Langue germanique]] |
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[[fy:Germaanske talen]] |
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[[kn:ಜರ್ಮನಿಕ್ ಭಾಷೆಗಳು]] |
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[[kw:Yethow germanek]] |
[[kw:Yethow germanek]] |
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[[la:Linguae Germanicae]] |
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[[lt:Germanų kalbos]] |
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[[li:Germaanse taole]] |
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[[mk:Германски јазици]] |
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[[pl:Języki germańskie]] |
[[pl:Języki germańskie]] |
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[[pt:Línguas germânicas]] |
[[pt:Línguas germânicas]] |
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[[ro:Limbile germanice]] |
[[ro:Limbile germanice]] |
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[[ru:Германские языки]] |
[[ru:Германские языки]] |
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[[sco:Germanic leid]] |
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[[se:Germánalaš gielat]] |
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[[simple:Germanic languages]] |
[[simple:Germanic languages]] |
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[[sk:Germánske jazyky]] |
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[[tg:Забонҳои германӣ]] |
[[tg:Забонҳои германӣ]] |
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[[tpi:Ol Tokples Siamanik]] |
[[tpi:Ol Tokples Siamanik]] |
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[[tr:Cermen dilleri]] |
[[tr:Cermen dilleri]] |
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[[uk:Германські мови]] |
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[[vls:Germaansche toaln]] |
[[vls:Germaansche toaln]] |
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[[zh:日耳曼语族]] |
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Semakan pada 04:51, 7 Februari 2008
Bahasa Jermanik | |
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Bahasa Teutonik | |
Taburan geografi: | Pada asal di Eropah utara, barat, dan tengah; kini di seluruh dunia |
Klasifikasi bahasa: | Indo-Eropah
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Pembahagian: | |
ISO 639-2 / 5: | gem |
Sebahagian daripada siri |
Topik-topik Indo-Eropah |
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Bahasa-bahasa Jermanik merupakan sekumpulan bahasa berkaitan yang sebagai cawangan keluarga bahasa Indo-Eropah. Nenek moyang umum untuk bahasa-bahasa dalam cawangan ini ialah Bahasa Proto-Jermanik, dituturkan pada kira-kira ahkir pertengahan milenia pertama Sebelum Masihi di Eropah utara Zaman Besi. Proto-Jermanik, dengan semua keturunannya, disifatkan dengan sebilangan ciri-ciri linguistik yang unik, yang terkenal ialah perubahan konsonan yang dikenali sebagai hukum Grimm. Pelbagai jenis bahasa Jermanik awal memasuki sejarah dengan suku-suku Jermanik yang tinggal di Eropah utara bersempadan dengan Empayar Rom sejak abad ke-2.
Bahasa-bahasa Jermanik yang terbesar ialah Bahasa Inggeris dan Bahasa Jerman, masing-masing dengan kira-kira 400 juta dan 100 juta orang penutur bahasa ibunda. Kumpulan ini juga terdiri daripada bahasa-bahasa utama yang lain, seperti Bahasa Belanda dengan 22 juta dan Bahasa Afrikaans dengan lebih daripada 16 juta orang penutur; dan Bahasa-bahasa Jermanik Utara termasuk Bahasa Norway, Bahasa Denmark, Bahasa Sweden, Bahasa Iceland, dan Bahasa Faroe dengan jumlah kira-kira 20 juta orang penutur. Etnologi SIL menyenaraikan 53 bahasa Jermanik yang berbeza.
Ciri- ciri Bahasa Jerman mempunyai beberapa ciri-ciri yang unik seperi berikut ;
1. Kata kerja peringkat Indo-European (IE) dan sistem aspek kedalam kata kerja sekarang (present tense) dan kata kerja lampau (past tense) (juga dikenali sebagai kata kerja kala lampau ( preterite ) ) 2. Banyak pengkelasan kata kerja yang menggunakan imbuhan dental (/d/ or /t/) sebaliknya huruf vokal pinggiran digunakan (Indo-European ablaut) untuk menunjukkan kata kerja lampau ; perkataan ini dikenali sebagai kata kerja jermanik lemah the Germanic weak verbs; baki kata kerja yang lain dengan ablaut vokal adalam kata kerja Jemanik Kuat theGermanic strong verbs 3. The use of so-called strong and weak adjectives: different sets of inflectional endings for adjectives depending on the definiteness of the noun phrase; (modern English adjectives do not inflect at all, except for the comparative and superlative; this was not the case in Old English, where adjectives were inflected differently depending on whether they were preceded by an article or demonstrative) 4. The consonant shift known as Grimm's Law; (the consonants in High German have shifted farther yet by the High German consonant shift) 5. A number of words with etymologies that are difficult to link to other Indo-European families, but variants of which appear in almost all Germanic languages, See Germanic substrate hypothesis 6. The shifting of stress accent onto the root of the stem and later to the first syllable of the word, (though English has an irregular stress, native words always have a fixed stress regardless of what is added to them) Germanic languages differ from each other to a greater degree than do some other language families such as the Romance or Slavic languages. Roughly speaking, Germanic languages differ in how conservative or how progressive each language is with respect to an overall trend toward analyticity. Some, such as German, Dutch, and Icelandic have preserved much of the complex inflectional morphology inherited from the Proto-Indo-European language. Others, such as English, Swedish, and Afrikaans have moved toward a largely analytic type. Another characteristic of Germanic languages is the verb second or V2 word order, which is quite uncommon cross-linguistically. This feature is shared by all modern Germanic languages except modern English (which nevertheless appears to have had V2 earlier in its history), but has largely replaced the structure with an overall Subject Verb Object syntax.
Writing
Tolong bantu menterjemahkan sebahagian rencana ini. Rencana ini memerlukan kemaskini dalam Bahasa Melayu piawai Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka. Sila membantu, bahan-bahan boleh didapati di Germanic languages (Inggeris). Jika anda ingin menilai rencana ini, anda mungkin mahu menyemak di terjemahan Google. Walau bagaimanapun, jangan menambah terjemahan automatik kepada rencana, kerana ini biasanya mempunyai kualiti yang sangat teruk. Sumber-sumber bantuan: Pusat Rujukan Persuratan Melayu. |
The earliest evidence of Germanic languages comes from names recorded in the first century by Tacitus (especially from his work Germania), but the earliest Germanic writing occurs in a single instance in the second century BC on the Negau helmet[1]. From roughly the second century AD, certain speakers of early Germanic varieties developed the Elder Futhark, an early form of the runic alphabet. Early runic inscriptions also are largely limited to personal names, and difficult to interpret. The Gothic language was written in the Gothic alphabet developed by Bishop Ulfilas for his translation of the Bible in the fourth century. Later, Christian priests and monks who spoke and read Latin in addition to their native Germanic varieties began writing the Germanic languages with slightly modified Latin letters. However, throughout the Viking Age, runic alphabets remained in common use in Scandinavia.
In addition to the standard Latin alphabet, various Germanic languages use a variety of accent marks and extra letters, including umlauts, the ß (Eszett), IJ, Ø, Æ, Å, Ä, Ö, Ð, Ȝ, and Þ and Ƿ, from runes. Historic printed German is frequently set in blackletter typefaces (e.g. fraktur or schwabacher).
Diachronic
General Note: The table shows the succession of the significant historical stages of each language (vertically), and their approximate groupings in subfamilies (horizontally). Horizontal sequence within each group does not imply a measure of greater or lesser similarity.
Note 1: There are conflicting opinions on the classification of Lombardic. Contrary to its isolated position in the table above, it also has been classified as close to either Upper German or Old Saxon. See the article on the Lombardic language for more information.
Note 2: Late Middle Ages refers to the post-Black Death period. Especially for the language situation in Norway this event was important.
Note 3: The speakers of Norn were assimilated to speak the Modern Scots varieties, and the Gutnish language today, is practically a dialect of Swedish.
Contemporary
- Lihat juga: List of Germanic languages
Mentioned here are all the principal and some secondary contemporary varieties; individual articles linked to below, may contain larger family trees. For example, many Low Saxon varieties are discussed on Low Saxon besides just Northern Low Saxon and Plautdietsch.
- Proto-Germanic
- West Germanic languages
- High German languages
- standard German
- Central German
- East Central German
- West Central German
- Luxembourgish
- Pennsylvania German (spoken by the Amish and other groups in southeastern Pennsylvania)
- Upper German
- Alemannic German
- Swabian German, including Stuttgart
- Low Alemannic German, including the area of Lake Constance and Basel German
- High Alemannic German, including Zürich German and Bernese German
- Highest Alemannic German, including the Bernese Oberland dialects and Walliser German
- Austro-Bavarian German
- North Bavarian (including Nuremberg)
- Middle Bavarian (including Munich and Vienna)
- South Bavarian (including Innsbruck, Klagenfurt, and Bolzano, Italy)
- Hutterite German (aka "Tirolean")
- Yiddish (with a significant influx of vocabulary from Hebrew and other languages, and traditionally written in the Hebrew alphabet)
- Alemannic German
- Wymysorys (with a significant influence from Low Saxon, Dutch, Polish, and Scots)
- Low Franconian
- Standard Dutch
- Afrikaans (with a significant influx of vocabulary from other languages)
- Low German
- Anglo-Frisian
- Old Frisian
- Frisian
- Stadsfries language
- West Frisian language (spoken in the Netherlands)
- Clay Frisian (Klaaifrysk)
- Wood Frisian (Wâldfrysk)
- Noardhoeks
- South Frisian (Súdhoeks)
- Southwest Frisian (Súdwesthoeksk)
- Schiermonnikoogs
- Hindeloopers
- Aasters
- Westers
- East Frisian language (spoken in Germany)
- Saterland Frisian language
- Several extinct Frisian variants
- North Frisian language (spoken in Germany)
- Mainland Frisian
- Island Frisian
- Frisian
- Anglic
- English language
- Old English
- Middle English (significant influx of words from Old French)
- Early Modern English
- Modern English
- British English (English English, including Northern English, Midlands English, Southern English dialects, and others, Welsh English, Scottish English) and Irish English
- North American English (American English and Canadian English)
- Australian English and New Zealand English
- South African English
- South Asian English (Indian English)
- South-East Asian English (Singapore English, Malaysian English)
- West Indian English (Caribbean English)
- Modern English
- Early Modern English
- Middle English (significant influx of words from Old French)
- Old English
- Scots language
- Early Scots[2] (from Northern Middle English with a significant influx of words from Anglo-Norman and Norse)
- Middle Scots
- Modern Scots language (huge influx of Latinate vocabulary, mostly via Norman French, some Scanadinavian influence via Anglo-Norse)
- Northern Scots
- North Northern
- Mid Northern
- North East Scots
- Doric aka South Northern
- North East Scots
- Central Scots
- South Scots "Border Tongue"
- Insular Scots
- Ulster Scots aka "Ullans" (Ulster/Lallans)
- Northern Scots
- Modern Scots language (huge influx of Latinate vocabulary, mostly via Norman French, some Scanadinavian influence via Anglo-Norse)
- Middle Scots
- Early Scots[2] (from Northern Middle English with a significant influx of words from Anglo-Norman and Norse)
- Yola
- English language
- Old Frisian
- High German languages
- North Germanic
- Proto-Norse
- Old Norse
- West Scandinavian
- Norwegian (generally Western branch, but heavy influence from Eastern branch)
- Bokmål (official written standard)
- Høgnorsk (unofficial written standard)
- Landsmål (unofficial written standard)
- Nynorsk (official written standard)
- Riksmål (unofficial written standard)
- Vestlandsk
- Nord-Norsk
- Helgeland Norwegian
- Nordland Norwegian
- Troms Norwegian
- Finnmark Norwegian
- East Norwegian
- Midland Norwegian
- Gudbrandsdal Norwegian
- Valdres and Hallingdal
- Western Telemark Norwegian
- Eastern Telemark Norwegian
- Trøndelag Norwegian
- Outer Trøndelag Norwegian
- Inner Trøndelag Norwegian
- Namdal Norwegian
- South-eastern Trøndersk
- Jamtlandic (also considered Norrlandic)
- Härdalic (also considered Norrlandic)
- Icelandic
- Gøtudanskt(Faroese Street Danish)
- Faroese
- Norn (extinct)
- Shetland Norn (extinct)
- Orkney Norn (extinct)
- Norwegian (generally Western branch, but heavy influence from Eastern branch)
- East Scandinavian
- Danish
- Rigsdansk/Rigsmål
- Eastern Danish (Amager, Bornholm, Skåne, Halland, Blekinge)
- Island Danish
- Jutlandic/Jutish
- North Jutlandic
- East Jutlandic
- West Jutlandic
- Sønderjysk (Danish Slesvig, German Schleswig)
- Rigsdansk/Rigsmål
- Swedish
- Dalecarlian
- Elfdalian (considered a Swedish Sveamål dialect, but has official orthography and is, because of a lower degree of mutual intelligibility with Swedish, considered a separate language by many linguists, see p. 6 in this reference)
- Old Swedish
- Dalecarlian
- Danish
- Old Gutnish
- West Scandinavian
- Old Norse
- Proto-Norse
- West Germanic languages
Alternate classification of contemporary North Germanic languages
Perbandingan kosa kata
Bahasa Inggeris | Bahasa Scots | Bahasa Frisia Barat | Bahasa Afrikaans | Bahasa Belanda | Bahasa Saxon Rendah | Bahasa Jerman | Bahasa Goth | Bahasa Iceland | Bahasa Faroe | Bahasa Sweden | Bahasa Denmark | Bahasa Norway (Bokmål) | Bahasa Norway (Nynorsk) |
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Apple | Aiple | Apel | Appel | Appel | Appel | Apfel | Aplus | Epli | Epl(i) [3] | Äpple | Æble | Eple | Eple |
Board | Buird | Board | Bord | Bord | Boord | Brett / Bord [4] | Baúrd | Borð | Borð | Bord | Bord | Bord | Bord |
Beech | Beech | Boeke/ Boekebeam | Beuk | Beuk | Böke | Buche | Bōka [5]/ -bagms | Bók | Bók | Bok | Bøg | Bøk | Bøk, Bok |
Book | Beuk | Boek | Boek | Boek | Book | Buch | Bōka | Bók | Bók | Bok | Bog | Bok | Bok |
Breast | Breest | Boarst | Bors | Borst | Bost | Brust | Brusts | Brjóst | Bróst | Bröst | Bryst | Bryst | Bryst |
Brown | Broun | Brún | Bruin | Bruin | Bruun | Braun | Bruns | Brúnn | Brúnur | Brun | Brun | Brun | Brun |
Day | Day | Dei | Dag | Dag | Dag | Tag | Dags | Dagur | Dagur | Dag | Dag | Dag | Dag |
Dead | Deid | Dea | Dood | Dood | Dood | Tot | Dauþs | Dauður | Deyður | Död | Død | Død | Daud |
Die (Starve) | Dee | Stjerre | Sterf | Sterven | Döen/ Starven | Sterben | Diwan | Deyja | Doyggja | Dö | Dø | Dø | Døy |
Enough | Eneuch | Genôch | Genoeg | Genoeg | Noog | Genug | Ganōhs | Nóg | Nóg/ Nógmikið | Nog | Nok | Nok | Nok |
Finger | Finger | Finger | Vinger | Vinger | Finger | Finger | Figgrs | Fingur | Fingur | Finger | Finger | Finger | Finger |
Give | Gie | Jaan | Gee | Geven | Geven | Geben | Giban | Gefa | Geva | Giva / Ge | Give | Gi | Gje(va) |
Glass | Gless | Glês | Glas | Glas | Glas | Glas | Gler | Glas | Glas | Glas | Glass | Glas | |
Gold | Gowd | Goud | Goud | Goud | Gold | Gold | Gulþ | Gull | Gull | Guld/ Gull | Guld | Gull | Gull |
Hand | Haund | Hân | Hand | Hand | Hand | Hand | Handus | Hönd | Hond | Hand | Hånd | Hånd | Hand |
Head | Heid | Holle | Hoof [6]/ Kop[7] | Hoofd/ Kop[7] | Kopp[7] | Haupt/ Kopf[7] | Háubiþ | Höfuð | Høvd/ Høvur | Huvud | Hoved | Hode | Hovud |
High | Heich | Heech | Hoog | Hoog | Hoog | Hoch | Háuh | Hár | Høg/ur | Hög | Høj | Høy/høg | Høg |
Home | Hame | Hiem | Heim [8]/ Tuis[9] | Heim [8]/Thuis[9] | Heim | Heim | Háimōþ | Heim | Heim | Hem | Hjem | Hjem/heim | Heim |
Hook | Heuk | Hoek | Haak | Haak | Haak | Haken | Krappa/ Krampa | Krókur | Krókur/ Ongul | Hake/ Krok | Hage/ Krog | Hake/ Krok | Hake/ Krok[10] |
House | Hoose | Hûs | Huis | Huis | Huus | Haus | Hūs | Hús | Hús | Hus | Hus | Hus | Hus |
Many | Mony | Mannich/Mennich | Menige | Menig | Mennig | Manch | Manags | Margir | Mangir/ Nógvir | Många | Mange | Mange | Mange |
Moon | Muin | Moanne | Maan | Maan | Maan | Mond | Mēna | Tungl/ Máni | Máni/ Tungl | Måne | Måne | Måne | Måne |
Night | Nicht | Nacht | Nag | Nacht | Natt/ Nacht | Nacht | Nótt | Nótt | Natt | Natt | Nat | Natt | Natt |
No | Nae | Nee | Nee | Nee(n) | Nee | Nein (Nö, Nee) | Nē | Nei | Nei | Nej | Nej | Nei | Nei |
Old | Auld | Âld | Oud | Oud, Gammel [11] | Oll | Alt | Sineigs | Gamall (but: eldri, elstur) | Gamal (but: eldri, elstur) | Gammal (but: äldre, äldst) | Gammel (but: ældre, ældst) | Gammel (but: eldre, eldst) | Gam(m)al (but: eldre, eldst) |
One | Ane | Ien | Een | Een | Een | Eins | Áins | Einn | Ein | En | En | En | Ein |
Ounce | Unce | Ûns | Ons | Ons | Ons | Unze | Unkja | Únsa | Únsa | Uns | Unse | Unse | Unse |
Snow | Snaw | Snie | Sneeu | Sneeuw | Snee | Schnee | Snáiws | Snjór | Kavi/ Snjógvur | Snö | Sne | Snø | Snø |
Stone | Stane | Stien | Steen | Steen | Steen | Stein | Stáins | Steinn | Steinur | Sten | Sten | Stein | Stein |
That | That | Dat | Dit, Daardie | Dat, Die | Dat (Dit) | Das | Þata | Það | Tað | Det | Det | Det | Det |
Two/Twain | Twa | Twa | Twee | Twee | Twee | Zwei (Zwo) | Twái | Tveir/ Tvær/ Tvö | Tveir (/Tvá) | Två | To | To | To [12] |
Who | Wha | Wa | Wie | Wie | Wokeen | Wer | Ƕas (Hwas) | Hver | Hvør | Vem | Hvem | Hvem | Kven |
Worm | Wirm | Wjirm | Wurm | Wurm/ Worm | Worm | Wurm | Maþa | Maðkur, Ormur | Maðkur/ Ormur | Mask/ Orm [13] | Orm | Mark/ Makk/ Orm | Mark/ Makk/ Orm [13] |
Bahasa Inggeris | Bahasa Scots | Bahasa Frisia Barat | Bahasa Afrikaans | Bahasa Belanda | Bahasa Saxon Rendah | Bahasa Jerman | Bahasa Goth | Bahasa Iceland | Bahasa Faroe | Bahasa Sweden | Bahasa Denmark | Bahasa Norway (Bokmål) | Bahasa Norway (Nynorsk) |
Lihat juga
Catatan
- ^ Malcolm Todd (1992). The Early Germans. Blackwell Publishing.
- ^ Purely modern term; it contradicts contemporary usage, which designated Scottish English as Inglis (i.e. English), whereas Scottis (i.e., Scots) meant Gaelic. But such chronological terminology is widely used, for example, by Scottish Language Dictionaries Ltd. (Formally SNDA), Dr. Anne King of The University of Edinburgh and by The University of Glasgow. It also is used in The Oxford Companion to the English Language and The Cambridge History of English and American Literature
- ^ The cognate means 'potato'. The correct word is 'Súrepli'.
- ^ Brett used in Southern, Bord also used in Northern Germany
- ^ Attested meaning 'letter', but also means beech in other Germanic languages, cf. Russian buk 'beech', bukva 'letter', maybe from Gothic.
- ^ Now only used in compound words such as hoofpyn (headache) and metaphorically, such as hoofstad (capital city).
- ^ a b c d From an old Latin borrowing, akin to "cup".
- ^ a b Archaic: now only used in compound words such as 'heimwee' (homesickness).
- ^ a b From a compound phrase akin to "to house"
- ^ Ongel is also used for fishing hook.
- ^ Old and decayed.
- ^ Dialectally tvo/ två/ tvei (m), tvæ (f), tvau (n).
- ^ a b The cognate means 'snake'.