Pengguna:BukanTeamBiasa/Kotak pasir/Pemanduan roda hadapan

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Citroën Traction Avant 1934 bersejarah — nama modelnya secara harfiah bermaksud pemanduan roda depan, salah satu inovasi kereta.

Pemanduan roda hadapan (FWD) adalah satu bentuk enjin dan susunan penghantaran yang digunakan di kenderaan bermotor, di mana enjin memacu roda hadapan sahaja. Kebanyakan kenderaan pemacu roda hadapan moden mempunyai enjin melintang, bukannya susunan enjin membujur yang lazimnya terdapat dalam susun atur kereta roda belakang dan kenderaan pemanduan empat roda.

Lokasi enjin dan penghantaran[sunting | sunting sumber]

Rencana utama: Susun atur#Susun atur pemanduan roda hadapan

Setakat ini, susun atur yang paling biasa untuk kereta pemanduan roda hadapan adalah dengan enjin dan penghantaran di hadapan kereta, dipasang secara melintang.[1]

Lain-lain susun atur pacuan hadapan yang kadang-kadang dihasilkan adalah enjin depan dipasang secara longitudinal, susunatur enjin pertengahan dan susun atur enjin belakang.

Sejarah[sunting | sunting sumber]

Sebelum tahun 1900[sunting | sunting sumber]

Eksperimen dengan kereta pacuan hadapan berpandu pada hari-hari awal kereta kereta. Menurut pelbagai sumber, kadang-kadang antara 1895 dan 1898 Gräf & Stift membina voiturette dengan enjin satu silinder De Dion-Bouton yang dipasang di hadapan kenderaan, menggerakkan gandar roda hadapan. Oleh itu, boleh dikatakan kereta hadapan kereta pertama di dunia, tetapi tidak pernah melihat pengeluaran besar-besaran, dengan hanya satu salinan yang pernah dibuat. Pada tahun 1898, Latil, di Perancis, mencipta sistem pacuan roda hadapan untuk menggerakkan kereta kuda.

Gabungan Société Parisienne - Victoria[sunting | sunting sumber]

1898-1901 Victoria Combination
1898-1901 Victoria Combination

In 1898/9 the French manufacturer Société Parisienne patented their front-wheel drive articulated vehicle concept which they manufactured as a Victoria Combination. It was variously powered by 1.75 atau 2.5 horsepower (1.30 atau 1.86 kW) De Dion-Bouton engine or a water cooled 3.5 horsepower (2.6 kW) Aster engine. The engine was mounted on the front axle and so was rotated by the tiller steering.[2][3][4][5] Nama Gabungan Victoria menyifatkan treler ringan, dua tempat duduk yang dikenali sebagai Victoria, digabungkan dengan mekanisme gandar belakang dan pemacu daripada tricycle roda motor yang diletakkan di hadapan untuk mencapai pemanduan roda hadapan.[3][4][5] It also known as the Eureka.

Menjelang 1899 Gabungan Victoria telah mengambil bahagian dalam acara bermotor seperti perlumbaan 371 km Paris - St Malo, yang menamatkan ke-23 keseluruhan dan kedua (terakhir) dalam kelas.[6] In October a Victoria Combination won its class in the Paris-Rambouillet-Paris event, covering the 100 kilometre course at 26 km/j (16 mph).[4][5] In 1900 it completed 240 kilometer (150 bt) non-stop at 29 km/j (18 mph).[2]

Apabila pengeluaran berhenti pada pertengahan tahun 1901, lebih 400 salinan telah dijual untuk 3,000 Franc (kira-kira $600) setiap satu.[4][5]

1900 – 1920[sunting | sunting sumber]

J. Walter Christie dari Amerika Syarikat telah membuat paten untuk kereta pacuan depan, prototaip pertama yang dibina pada tahun 1904.[7] Dia mempromosikan dan membuktikan kenderaan itu dengan berlumba-lumba di pelbagai litar di Amerika Syarikat, dan juga bertanding dalam Piala Vanderbilt 1906[8] dan Grand Prix Perancis. Pada tahun 1912, beliau mula mengeluarkan traktor enjin kereta beroda roda yang menggunakan sistem pacuan roda hadapannya, tetapi kerana kekurangan jualan usaha ini gagal.

1920 – 1930[sunting | sunting sumber]

1925 Miller 122 Indianapolis 500 pelumba roda hadapan

Pemakaian depan roda depan adalah kereta perlumbaan supercharged Alvis 12/50 yang direka oleh George Thomas Smith-Clarke dan William M. Dunn Alvis Cars dari United Kingdom. Kenderaan ini dimasukkan ke dalam [[Kop Hill Climb] 1925 di Princes Risborough di Buckinghamshire pada 28 Mac 1925. Harry Arminius Miller Menomonie, Wisconsin] merancang racecar Miller 122 yang dipasangkan di Indianapolis 500 1925 yang telah diadakan di Indianapolis Motor Speedway pada hari Sabtu, 30 Mei, 1925.[9]

Walau bagaimanapun, idea pemanduan roda depan merosot di luar arena lumba motor kerana tiada pengeluar kereta utama cuba sama untuk kereta pengeluaran. Eksperimen pasaran di Amerika Syarikat ditinggalkan kepada usaha kecil seperti Ruxton (200 kereta pada tahun 1929), dan Cord L-29 1929. Pembuat kereta tidak berjaya terutama di pasaran terbuka. Alvis Cars memperkenalkan model komersil roda depan Alvis 12/50 pada tahun 1928, tetapi ia juga tidak berjaya.[10]

1930 – 1945[sunting | sunting sumber]

Front-wheel-drive MF layout with engine behind the transmission in the 1930s. Renault widely used this configuration into the 1980s.

The first successful consumer application came in 1929. The BSA (Birmingham Small Arms Company) produced the unique front-wheel-drive BSA three-wheeler. Production continued until 1936 during which time sports and touring models were available. In 1931 the DKW F1 from Germany made its debut. Buckminster Fuller adopted rear-engine, front wheel drive for his three Dymaxion Car prototypes. Other German car producers followed: Stoewer offered a car with front-wheel drive in 1931, Adler in 1932 and Audi in 1933. In 1934, the very successful Traction Avant cars were introduced by Citroën of France.[1] The Cord 810 of the United States managed a bit better in the late 1930s than its predecessor one decade earlier. These vehicles featured a layout that places the engine behind the transmission, running "backwards," (save for the Cord, which drove the transmission from the front of the engine). The basic front-wheel-drive layout provides sharp turning, and better weight distribution creates "positive handling characteristics" due to its low polar inertia and relatively favourable weight distribution.[11] (The heaviest component is near the centre of the car, making the main component of its moment of inertia relatively low). Another result of this design is a lengthened chassis. After the 1930s, front-wheel drive would largely become abandoned for the following twenty years.[1]

1945 – 1960[sunting | sunting sumber]

The 1959 Mini with a transverse engine
Transverse front-wheel-drive FF layout as pioneered in the Mini is today the most common in mass market passenger cars

Front-wheel drive continued with the 1948 Citroën 2CV, where the air-cooled lightweight aluminium flat twin engine was mounted ahead of the front wheels, but used Hooke type universal joint driveshaft joints, and 1955 Citroën DS, featuring the mid-engine layout. Panhard of France, DKW of Germany and Saab of Sweden offered exclusively front-wheel-drive cars, starting with the 1948 Saab 92.

In 1946, Lloyd Cars, the English car company, had produced the front-wheel-drive roadster, Lloyd 650. The two-stroke, two-cylinder motor was mounted transversely in the front and connected to the front wheels through four-speed synchronised gearbox. The high price and lacklustre performance had doomed its production. Only 600 units were produced from 1946 to 1950.

In 1946 in Italy eng. Antonio Fessia created his Cemsa Caproni F11, produced in 7 specimens his innovation was to created the happy combination with the boxer engine (flat four) on a special frame from the particularly low center of gravity. For post-war financial problems Cemsa could not continue production but the project was resumed when taken in Lancia in the 50s. 1954, Alfa-Romeo had experimented with its first front-wheel-drive compact car named "33" (not related or referred to sports car similarly named "33"). It had the same transverse-mounted, forward-motor layout as the modern front-wheel-drive automobiles. It even resembled the smaller version of its popular Alfa Romeo Giulia. However, due to the financial difficulties in post-war Italy, the 33 never saw the production. Had Alfa-Romeo succeed in producing 33, it would precede the Mini as the first "modern" European front-wheel-drive compact car.

In 1955, one of the first Japanese manufacturers to utilize front-wheel drive with a transversely installed engine was the Suzuki Suzulight, which was a small "city" car, called a kei car in Japanese.

In East Germany, both Trabant and Wartburg as well as IFA F9, had front wheel drive . More than that, the Trabant had both monocoque body and a transversely mounted engine, solution used in todays cars, making it quite an advanced car for those times.

In 1959 Austin Mini was launched by the British Motor Corporation, designed by Alec Issigonis as a response to the first 'oil crisis', the 1956 Suez Crisis, and the boom in bubble cars that followed. It was the first production front-wheel-drive car with a watercooled inline four-cylinder engine mounted transversely. This allowed eighty percent of the floor plan for the use of passengers and luggage. The majority of modern cars use this configuration. Its progressive rate rubber sprung independent suspension, low centre of gravity, and wheel at each corner with radial tyres, gave a massive increase in grip and handling over all but the most expensive cars on the market. It used GKN designed constant-velocity joint drive shaft universal joints. The Mini revived the use of front-wheel drive which had been largely abandoned since the 1930s.[1]

1960 – 1975[sunting | sunting sumber]

1960's Renault 4 rolling chassis with gearbox ahead of engine
Front-wheel-drive FF layout as used by Audi and Subaru

The transversely mounted engine combined with front-wheel drive was popularized by the 1959 Mini; there the transmission was built into the sump of the engine, and drive was transferred to it via a set of primary gears. Another variant transmission concept was used by Simca in the 1960s keeping the engine and transmission in line, but transverse mounted and with unequal length driveshafts. This has proven itself to be the model on which almost all modern FWD vehicles are now based. Peugeot and Renault on their jointly developed small car engine of the 1970s where the 4-cylinder block was canted over to reduce the overall height of the engine with the transmission underneath (PSA X engine). The tendency of this layout to generate unwanted transmission "whine" has seen it fall out of favour. Also, clutch changes required engine removal.

In 1960 Lancia could evolve the project CemsaF11 of Antonio Fessia with the innovative Lancia Flavia for first time with motor Boxer on auxiliary frame for low center of gravity. This scheme continued in Lancia until 1984 with the end production of Lancia Gamma and successfully cloned until today by Subaru. Lancia However also made front-wheel drive its flag even in sport cars as the winner of the Rally, Lancia Fulvia, and then with large-scale models with excellent road qualities and performances including Lancia Beta, Lancia Delta, Lancia Thema including the powerful Lancia Thema 8.32 with engine Ferrari and all subsequent models. Ford introduced front wheel drive to its European customers in 1962 with the Taunus P4. The 1965 Triumph 1300 was designed around a longitudinal engine with the transmission underneath. Audi has also used a longitudinally mounted engine overhung over the front wheels since the 1970s. Audi is one of the few manufacturers which still uses this particular configuration. It allows the use of equal-length half shafts and the easy addition of all-wheel drive, but has the disadvantage that it makes it difficult to achieve 50/50 weight distribution (although they remedy this in four-wheel-drive models by mounting the gearbox at the rear of the transaxle). The Subaru 1000 appeared in 1966 utilizing front-wheel drive mated to a flat-4 engine, with the driveshafts of equal length extending from the transmission, which addressed some of the issues of the powertrain being somewhat complex and unbalanced in the engine compartment - the Alfa Romeo Alfasud (and its replacement, the 1983 Alfa 33 as well as the Alfa 145/146 up to late 1990s) also used the same layout.

Honda also introduced several small front wheel drive vehicles, with the N360 and N600, the Z360 and Z600 in 1967, the Honda 1300 in 1969, followed by the Honda Civic in 1972 and the Honda Accord in 1976.

Also in the 1970s and 1980s, the Douvrin engines used in the larger Renaults (20, 21, 25 and 30) used this longitudinal "forward" layout. The first generation Saab 900, launched in 1978, also used a longitudinal engine with a transmission underneath with helical gears. The 1966 Oldsmobile Toronado was the first U.S. front-wheel-drive car since the Cord 810. It used a longitudinal engine placement for its V8, coupled with an unusual "split" transmission, which turned the engine power 180 degrees. Power then went to a differential mounted to the transmission case, from which half-shafts took it to the wheels. The driveline was set fairly at centre-point of the wheels for better weight distribution, though this raised the engine, requiring lowered intake systems.

Giacosa innovation[sunting | sunting sumber]

Front-wheel drive layout had been highly impacted by the success of small, inexpensive cars, especially the British Mini. As engineered by Alec Issigonis, the compact arrangement located the transmission and engine sharing a single oil sump — despite disparate lubricating requirements — and had the engine's radiator mounted to the side of the engine, away from the flow of fresh air and drawing heated rather than cool air over the engine. The layout often required the engine be removed to service the clutch.[14]

As engineered by Dante Giacosa, the Fiat 128 featured a transverse-mounted engine with unequal length drive shafts and an innovative clutch release mechanism — an arrangement which Fiat had strategically tested on a previous production model, the Primula, from its less market-critical subsidiary, Autobianchi.

Ready for production in 1964, the Primula featured a gear train offset from the differential and final drive with unequal length drive shafts. The layout enabled the engine and gearbox to be located side by side without sharing lubricating fluid while orienting the cooling fan toward fresh air flow. By using the Primula as a test-bed, Fiat was able to sufficiently resolve the layout's disadvantages, including uneven side-to-side power transmission, uneven tire wear and potential torque steer, the tendency for the power of the engine alone to steer the car under heavy acceleration.

After the 128, Fiat further demonstrated the layout's flexibility, re-configurating the 128 drive-train as a mid-engined layout for the Fiat X1/9. The compact, efficient Giacosa layout — a transversely-mounted engine with transmission mounted beside the engine driving the front wheels through an offset final-drive and unequal-length driveshafts, combined with MacPherson struts and an independently located radiator — subsequently became common with competitors[15] and arguably an industry standard.[16]

1975 – 1990[sunting | sunting sumber]

The Corporate Average Fuel Economy standard drove a mass changeover of cars in the U.S. to front-wheel drive. The change began in 1978, with the introduction of the first American-built transverse-engined cars, the Plymouth Horizon and Dodge Omni (based on the European designed Simca Horizon),[17] followed by the 1980 Chevrolet Citation and numerous other vehicles. Meanwhile, European car makers, that had moved to front-wheel drive decades before, began to homogenize their engine arrangement only in this decade, leaving Audi (and Volkswagen) alone with the Audi front drive-longitudinal engine layout. Years before this was the most common layout in Europe, with examples like Citroen DS, Renault 12, Renault 5, Renault 25 (a Chrysler LH ancestor) Alfa Romeo 33, Volkswagen Passat, etc. This transition can be exemplified in the Renault 21 that was offered with disparate engine configurations. The 1.7-litre version featured an 'east-west' (transversely) mounted engine, but Renault had no gearbox suitable for a more powerful transverse engine: accordingly, faster versions featured longitudinally mounted (north south) engines.

By reducing drivetrain weight and space needs, vehicles could be made smaller and more efficient without sacrificing acceleration. Integrating the powertrain with a transverse as opposed to a longitudinal layout, along with unibody construction and the use of constant velocity jointed drive axles, along with front wheel drive has evolved into the modern-day mass market automobile. Some suggest that the introduction of the modern Volkswagen Golf in 1974, from a traditional U.S. competitor, and the introduction of the 1973 Honda Civic, and the 1976 Honda Accord served as a wake-up call for the "Big Three" (only Chrysler already produced front-wheel-drive vehicles in their operations outside North America). GM was even later with the 1979 Vauxhall Astra/Opel Kadett. Captive imports were the US car makers initial response to the increased demand for economy cars. The popularity of front-wheel drive began to gain momentum, with the 1981 Ford Escort, the 1982 Nissan Sentra, and the 1983 Toyota Corolla. Front-wheel drive became the norm for mid-sized cars starting with the 1982 Chevrolet Celebrity, 1982 Toyota Camry, 1983 Dodge 600, 1985 Nissan Maxima, 1986 Honda Legend, and the 1986 Ford Taurus. By the mid-1980s, most formerly rear-wheel-drive Japanese models were front-wheel drive, and by the mid-1990s, most American brands only sold a handful of rear-wheel-drive models.

1990 – sekarang[sunting | sunting sumber]

Chevrolet Cobalt, sebuah kereta pemanduan roda hadapan yang dibuat dari tahun 2004 hingga 2010

Sebilangan besar kenderaan pacuan roda hadapan hari ini menggunakan enjin mesin yang dipasang secara melintang dengan transmisi dipasang "akhir", memacu roda depan melalui pemacu yang dihubungkan melalui sendi laju konstan CV)]], dan kipas penyejuk terkawal secara fleksibel.[1] Konfigurasi ini dipelopori oleh Dante Giacosa pada tahun 1964 Autobianchi Primula dan dipopulerkan dengan Fiat 128.[18] Fiat dinaikkan pangkat dalam pengiklanan bahawa ciri-ciri mekanikal hanya menggunakan 20% daripada jumlah kenderaan dan bahawa Enzo Ferrari memandu 128 sebagai kenderaan peribadinya.[15] Mini 1959 menggunakan perkiraan yang sangat berbeza dengan transmisi di dalam tong, dan kipas penyejuk menggelegar udara panas dari lokasi menghadap sebelahnya.

Volvo Cars telah menukar seluruh barisannya selepas siri 900 ke pemacu roda depan. Jurutera Sweden di syarikat itu mengatakan bahawa enjin yang dipasang secara melintang membenarkan kawasan zon lebih rapi dalam perlanggaran di kepala. Pengeluar kereta Amerika kini beralih kepada model yang lebih besar (seperti Chrysler 300) dan kebanyakan barisan Cadillac kembali kepada pemanduan roda belakang.[19][20] Terdapat beberapa kereta pemanduan roda belakang yang dipasarkan di Amerika Utara pada awal tahun 1990-an; Barisan kereta Chrysler adalah pemacu roda depan pada tahun 1990. GM mengikuti jejak pada tahun 1996 di mana garisan B-badan dimansuhkan, di mana kereta sukannya (Camaro, Firebird, Corvette) adalah satu-satunya RWD yang dipasarkan; pada awal tahun 2000, Chevrolet Corvette dan Cadillac Catera merupakan satu-satunya kereta RWD yang ditawarkan oleh General Motors sehingga pengenalan platform Sigma. Selepas fasa dari platform Ford Panther (kecuali Mustang), kereta Ford (termasuk van Transit Connect) yang dikeluarkan untuk tahun model 2012 untuk hadir ialah pemacu roda depan; platform D3 (berdasarkan platform Volvo) mempunyai pilihan semua pemacu roda.

Rekod[sunting | sunting sumber]

Nissan GT-R LM Nismo.
  • Kereta perlumbaan Nissan GT-R LM Nismo memegang rekod sebagai kereta pacuan roda hadapan yang paling berkuasa, dengan enjin pembakaran mengeluarkan kira-kira 500 hp (370 kW; 510 PS) manakala sistem roda tenaga beralih mempunyai output tambahan sekitar 750 hp (560 kW; 760 PS). Ini menyumbang sejumlah 1,250 hp (930 kW; 1,270 PS). Kuasa dari roda tenaga roda itu bertujuan untuk dipisahkan antara roda depan dan belakang, menjadikan semua pemacu roda kereta dalam konfigurasi ini. Walau bagaimanapun, disebabkan oleh kebolehpercayaan kereta itu berlumba tanpa roda tenaga dan dengan 500hp memandu roda hadapan sahaja.
    • Bagaimanapun, Oldsmobile Toronado 1970 tetap menjadi kereta pengeluaran pemanduan roda depan yang paling berkuasa sehingga hari ini, dengan pilihan W-34 menghasilkan 400 hp (298 kW).
  • [Dodge Neon SRT-4]] dari RaceDeck Racing memecahkan rekod kelajuan tanah untuk kelasnya di Bonneville Salt Flats di Utah pada 16 Ogos 2006. Didorong oleh Jorgen Moller Jr., Rekod ditetapkan pada kelajuan purata 221 mph untuk kedua-dua larian pada kursus lima batu.

Lihat juga[sunting | sunting sumber]

Rujukan[sunting | sunting sumber]

  1. ^ a b c d e {{cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/technology/automobile/History-of-the-automobile%7Ctitle=History Of The Automobile|publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica|accessdate=March 22, 2019
  2. ^ a b Georgano, G.N (Nick) (1973). The Complete Encyclopedia of Motorcars, 1885 to the present day. London: Ebury Press.
  3. ^ a b Grace's Guide to Industrial History. Profile of La Societe Parisienne
  4. ^ a b c d Bonhams Auctioneers, Profile description of Parisienne at Wikimedia Commons
  5. ^ a b c d Bonhams Auctioneers - Profile of La Société Parisienne - Victoria Combination
  6. ^ Unique Cars and Parts. Voiturette Racing - Before The Formula One
  7. ^ "Front Wheel Drive Used in 1908." Popular Science, November 1930, p. 52 bottom of page, photo
  8. ^ "J. Walter Christie". Featured drivers. VanderbiltCupRaces.com. 2011. Dicapai pada 2011-07-24.
  9. ^ Day, Kenneth (1989). "Part II: Racing history". Dalam Iles, Robert (penyunting). Alvis:the story of the red triangle (ed. 2nd). Somerset, England: Haynes Publishing Group. m/s. 113–63. ISBN 0-85429-667-0.
  10. ^ The Front Drive - Why Not? Popular Mechanics, January 1930, pp. 10-13
  11. ^ "Cord front-drive car is here", The New York Times. April 12, 1936. p. XX7.
  12. ^ "European Car of the Year 1965: BMC Scores a Win". Hemmings Motor News, August 2011.
  13. ^ "By Design: BMW Concept Active Tourer". Automobile Magazine, Robert Cumberford, February 2013 Issue.
  14. ^ "Dante Giacosa". Fiat500USA.com.
  15. ^ a b "Collectible Classic: 1971-1979 Fiat 128". Automobile Magazine, August 2012.
  16. ^ "1969-1984 FIAT 128 Saloon". Classic and Performance Car. Diarkibkan daripada yang asal pada 2014-04-08. It’s the recipe for technical orthodoxy that has since been adopted by the entire industry.
  17. ^ Bryan T. Nicalek. "The Dodge Omni and Plymouth Horizon". Allpar.
  18. ^ Brick by Brick: The Biography of the Man Who Really Made the Mini, Martyn Nutland, p. 237. Authorhouse, Bloomington, IN, 2012. ISBN 9781477203170.
  19. ^ "The Chrysler-Dodge LX Cars: Charger, Challenger, 300, 300C, and Magnum". Allpar.
  20. ^ Sherman, Don (1998). "Cadillac goes to RWD - rear-wheel drive". Automotive Industries (extracted in LookSmart).
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