Akta Hak Undi 1965

Akta Hak Undi 1965
Nama hari-hari	Akta Hak Undi
Telah digubal oleh	89th United States Congress
Berkesan	Ogos 6, 1965
Petikan
	Pub.L. 89–110
Stat.	79 Stat. 437
Kodifikasi
Tajuk dipinda	Judul 52—Pengundian dan Pilihan Raya
Seksyen-seksyen U.S.C. yang dicipta	52 U.S.C. § 10101; 52 U.S.C. § 10301–10314; 52 U.S.C. § 10501–10508; 52 U.S.C. § 10701–10702;
Legislative history
	Diperkenalkan di Senat sebagai S. 1564 oleh Mike Mansfield (D–MT) pada Mac 17, 1965; Pertimbangan persidangan oleh: Badan Kehakiman Senat; Meluluskan Senat pada Mei 26, 1965 (77–19); Meluluskan Dewan dengan pindaan onpada Julai 9, 1965 (333–85) ; Dilaporkan oleh jawatankuasa persidangan bersama pada Julai 29, 1965; disetujui oleh Dewan pada Ogos 3, 1965 (328–74) dan oleh Senat pada Ogos 4, 1965 (79–18); Ditandatangani menjadi undang-undang oleh Presiden Lyndon B. Johnson pada Ogos 6, 1965;
Pindaan-pindaan utama
	Pindaan Akta Hak Mengundi 1970; Voting Rights Act of 1965, Pindaan 1975; Pindaan Akta Hak Mengundi 1982; Akta Bantuan Bahasa Hak Mengundi 1992; Fannie Lou Hamer, Rosa Parks, Coretta Scott King, Cesar E. Chavez, Barbara C. Jordan, William C. Velasquez; Hector P. Garcia Akta Hak Mengundi Akta Kebenaran Semula dan Pindaan;
Kes-kes Mahkamah Agung
	Senarai South Carolina v. Katzenbach, 383 U.S. 301 (1966); Katzenbach v. Morgan, 384 U.S. 641 (1966); Cardona v. Power, 384 U.S. 672 (1966); Allen v. State Board of Elections, 393 U.S. 544 (1969); Gaston County v. United States, 395 U.S. 285 (1969); Oregon v. Mitchell, 400 U.S. 112 (1970); City of Richmond v. United States, 422 U.S. 358 (1975); East Carroll Parish Sch. Bd. v. Marshall, 424 U.S. 636 (1976); Beer v. United States, 425 U.S. 130 (1976); United Jewish Organizations v. Carey, 430 U.S. 144 (1977); Mobile v. Bolden, 446 U.S. 55 (1980); City of Rome v. United States, 446 U.S. 156 (1980); Escambia County v. McMillan, 466 U.S. 48 (1984); Mississippi Republican Executive Committee v. Brooks, 469 U.S. 1002 (1984); Thornburg v. Gingles, 478 U.S. 30 (1986); Clark v. Roemer, 500 U.S. 646 (1991); Chisom v. Roemer, 501 U.S. 380 (1991); Houston Lawyers' Association v. Attorney General of Texas, 501 U.S. 419 (1991); Presley v. Etowah County Comm'n, 502 U.S. 491 (1992); Growe v. Emison, 507 U.S. 25 (1993); Voinovich v. Quilter, 507 U.S. 146 (1993); Shaw v. Reno, 509 U.S. 630 (1993); Holder v. Hall, 512 U.S. 874 (1994); Johnson v. De Grandy, 512 U.S. 997 (1994); Miller v. Johnson, 515 U.S. 900 (1995); Morse v. Republican Party of Virginia, 517 U.S. 186 (1996); Shaw v. Hunt, 517 U.S. 899 (1996); Bush v. Vera, 517 U.S. 952 (1996); Lopez v. Monterey County, 519 U.S. 9 (1996); Young v. Fordice, 520 U.S. 273 (1997); Reno v. Bossier Parish School Board, 520 U.S. 471 (1997); Abrams v. Johnson, 521 U.S. 74 (1997); Foreman v. Dallas County, 521 U.S. 979 (1997); City of Monroe v. United States, 522 U.S. 34 (1997); Texas v. United States, 523 U.S. 296 (1998); Lopez v. Monterey County, 525 U.S. 266 (1999); Reno v. Bossier Parish School Board, 528 U.S. 320 (2000); Branch v. Smith, 538 U.S. 254 (2003); Georgia v. Ashcroft, 539 U.S. 461 (2003); League of United Latin American Citizens v. Perry, 548 U.S. 399 (2006); Riley v. Kennedy, 553 U.S. 406 (2008); Bartlett v. Strickland, 556 U.S. 1 (2009); Northwest Austin Municipal Utility District No. 1 v. Holder, 557 U.S. 193 (2009); Perry v. Perez, 565 U.S. 388 (2012); Shelby County v. Holder, 570 U.S. 529 (2013); Alabama Legislative Black Caucus v. Alabama, ___ U.S. , (Docket No. 13-895); Bethune-Hill v. Virginia State Bd. of Elections, ___ U.S. , (Docket No. 15-680); Cooper v. Harris, ___ U.S. , (Docket No. 15-1262); North Carolina v. Covington, ___ U.S. , (Docket No. 16-1023); Abbott v. Perez, ___ U.S. , (Docket No. 17-586); North Carolina v. Covington, ___ U.S. , (Docket No. 17-1364); Brnovich v. Democratic National Committee, ___ U.S. , (Docket No. 19-1257); Allen v. Milligan, ___ U.S. , (Docket No. 21-1086);
	l; b; s;

Akta Hak Undi 1965 ialah bahagian penting persekutuan perundangan di Amerika Syarikat yang melarang diskriminasi kaum dalam pengundian.^[7]^[8] Ia telah ditandatangani menjadi undang-undang oleh Presiden Lyndon B. Johnson semasa kemuncak pergerakan hak sivil pada 6 Ogos 1965, dan Kongres kemudiannya meminda Akta tersebut lima kali untuk meluaskan perlindungannya.^[7] Direka untuk menguatkuasakan hak mengundi yang dilindungi oleh Pindaan Keempat Belas dan Kelima Belas kepada Perlembagaan Amerika Syarikat, Akta tersebut berusaha untuk memperolehi hak untuk mengundi bagi kaum minoriti di seluruh negara, terutamanya di arah Selatan. Menurut Jabatan Kehakiman A.S., Akta ini dianggap sebagai perundangan hak sivil persekutuan yang paling berkesan yang pernah digubal di negara tersebut.^[9] Pentadbiran Arkib dan Rekod Negara menyatakan: "Akta Hak Undi 1965 ialah perubahan undang-undang yang paling ketara dalam hubungan antara persekutuan dan kerajaan negeri dalam bidang pengundian sejak Tempoh pembinaan semula berikutan Perang Saudara".^[10]

Catatan[sunting | sunting sumber]

Rujukan[sunting | sunting sumber]

^ "Public Law 91-285". June 22, 1970. Dicapai pada April 19, 2014.
^ "Public Law 94-73". August 6, 1975. Dicapai pada April 19, 2014.
^ "Public Law 97-205". June 29, 1982. Dicapai pada April 19, 2014.
^ "Public Law 102-344". August 26, 1992. Dicapai pada April 19, 2014.
^ "Public Law 109-246". July 27, 2006. Dicapai pada April 19, 2014.
^ "Public Law 110-258". July 1, 2008. Dicapai pada April 19, 2014. (amending short title of P.L. 109-246)
^ ^a ^b "Sejarah Undang-undang Hak Mengundi Persekutuan : Akta Hak Mengundi 1965". Jabatan Kehakiman Amerika Syarikat. 28 Julai 2017. Diarkibkan daripada yang asal pada 6 Januari 2021. Dicapai pada 6 Januari 2021.
^ "Akta Hak Mengundi". Muzium dan Institut Hak Mengundi Negara. Dicapai pada 23 Mei 2014.
^ Rencana ini mengandungi teks dari suatu penerbitan yang kini berada dalam domain awam: "Introduction to Federal Voting Rights Laws: The Effect of the Voting Rights Act" [Pengenalan kepada Undang-undang Hak Mengundi Persekutuan: Kesan Akta Hak Mengundi]. U.S. Jabatan Kehakiman. Jun 19, 2009. Diarkibkan daripada yang asal pada August 27, 2021. Dicapai pada Januari 8, 2014. Cite has empty unknown parameter: |1= (bantuan)
^ Ralat petik: Tag <ref> tidak sah; tiada teks disediakan bagi rujukan yang bernama NARA20220208VRA1965

Bacaan lanjut[sunting | sunting sumber]

Ansolabehere, Stephen; Persily, Nathaniel; Stewart, Charles III (2010). "Race, Region, and Vote Choice in the 2008 Election: Implications for the Future of the Voting Rights Act". Harvard Law Review. 123 (6): 1385–1436.
Berman, Ari (2015). Give Us the Ballot: The Modern Struggle for Voting Rights in America. New York, NY: Farrar, Straus and Giroux. ISBN 978-0-3741-5827-9.
Bullock, Charles S. III, Ronald Keith Gaddie, and Justin J. Wert, eds. (2016). The Rise and Fall of the Voting Rights Act by (University of Oklahoma Press; 240 pages) focus on period between the 2006 revision of the 1965 act and the invalidation of one of its key provisions in Shelby County v. Holder (2013).
Davidson, Chandler (1984). Minority Vote Dilution. Washington, D.C.: Howard University Press. ISBN 978-0-88258-156-9.
Davidson, Chandler (1994). Quiet Revolution in the South: The Impact of the Voting Rights Act, 1965–1990. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-02108-9.
Finley, Keith M. (2008). Delaying the Dream: Southern Senators and the Fight Against Civil Rights, 1938–1965. Baton Rouge, LA: Louisiana State University Press. ISBN 978-0-8071-3345-3.
Garrow, David J. (1978). Protest at Selma: Martin Luther King, Jr., and the Voting Rights Act of 1965. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-02498-2.
Lawson, Steven F. (1976). Black Ballots: Voting Rights in the South, 1944–1969. New York, NY: Columbia University Press. ISBN 978-0-7391-0087-5.
Smooth, Wendy (September 2006). "Intersectionality in electoral politics: a mess worth making". Politics & Gender. 2 (3): 400–414. doi:10.1017/S1743923X06261087. S2CID 145812097.

Pautan luar[sunting | sunting sumber]

Garrett, R. Sam (April 25, 2023). The Voting Rights Act: Historical Development and Policy Background (Laporan). Congressional Research Service. Dicapai pada January 19, 2024.
Voting Rights Act of 1965 as amended (PDF/details) in the GPO Statute Compilations collection
Voting Rights Act of 1965 as enacted (details) in the US Statutes at Large
Text of original Act and 1970, 1975, and 1982 amendments (PDF). Archived from the original on March 7, 2019.
Voting Rights Enforcement and Reauthorization: An Examination of the Act's Section 5 Preclearance Provision, U.S. Commission on Civil Rights
Voting Rights Act: Past, Present, and Future Diarkibkan Oktober 9, 2008, di Wayback Machine, Justice Talking
The Voting Rights Act of 1965: Background and Overview (PDF), Congressional Research Service
"The Selma to Montgomery Voting Rights March: Shaking the Conscience of the Nation", a National Park Service Teaching with Historic Places lesson plan
Voting Rights Act: Evidence of Continued Need: Hearing before the Subcommittee on the Constitution of the Committee on the Judiciary, House of Representatives, One Hundred Ninth Congress, Second Session, March 8, 2006, Vol. 1 Vol. 2 Vol. 3 Vol. 4
The Great Society Congress
111 Congressional Record (Bound) - Volume 111, Part 2 (May 25, 1965 to June 8, 1965), Congressional Record Senate May 26 vote roll call p. 11752
111 Congressional Record (Bound) - Volume 111, Part 12 (July 7, 1965 to July 16, 1965), Congressional Record House July 9 vote roll call pp. 16285–16286
111 Congressional Record (Bound) - Volume 111, Part 14 (July 28, 1965 to August 9, 1965), Congressional Record House August 3 conference report vote roll call p. 19201
111 Congressional Record (Bound) - Volume 111, Part 14 (July 28, 1965 to August 9, 1965), Congressional Record Senate August 4 conference report vote roll call p. 19378

[1970am-1] "Public Law 91-285". June 22, 1970. Dicapai pada April 19, 2014.

[1975am-2] "Public Law 94-73". August 6, 1975. Dicapai pada April 19, 2014.

[1982am-3] "Public Law 97-205". June 29, 1982. Dicapai pada April 19, 2014.

[1992am-4] "Public Law 102-344". August 26, 1992. Dicapai pada April 19, 2014.

[2006am-5] "Public Law 109-246". July 27, 2006. Dicapai pada April 19, 2014.

[2006am08-6] "Public Law 110-258". July 1, 2008. Dicapai pada April 19, 2014. (amending short title of P.L. 109-246)

[DOJvra65-7] "Sejarah Undang-undang Hak Mengundi Persekutuan : Akta Hak Mengundi 1965". Jabatan Kehakiman Amerika Syarikat. 28 Julai 2017. Diarkibkan daripada yang asal pada 6 Januari 2021. Dicapai pada 6 Januari 2021.

[8] "Akta Hak Mengundi". Muzium dan Institut Hak Mengundi Negara. Dicapai pada 23 Mei 2014.

[DOJintro-9] Rencana ini mengandungi teks dari suatu penerbitan yang kini berada dalam domain awam: "Introduction to Federal Voting Rights Laws: The Effect of the Voting Rights Act" [Pengenalan kepada Undang-undang Hak Mengundi Persekutuan: Kesan Akta Hak Mengundi]. U.S. Jabatan Kehakiman. Jun 19, 2009. Diarkibkan daripada yang asal pada August 27, 2021. Dicapai pada Januari 8, 2014. Cite has empty unknown parameter: |1= (bantuan)

[NARA20220208VRA1965-10] Ralat petik: Tag <ref> tidak sah; tiada teks disediakan bagi rujukan yang bernama NARA20220208VRA1965

[1]

[2]

[3]

[4]

[5]

[6]

[7]

[8]

[9]

[10]

Kawalan kewibawaan
Umum	VIAF 1 WorldCat (melalui VIAF)
Perpustakaan negara	Jerman Israel Amerika Syarikat
Lain-lain	Arkib Negara (A.S.)