Paku pakis

Pakis; Julat zaman: Devon Tengah – Kini PreЄ Є O S D C P T J K Pg N
	Polypodiales Equisetales Marattiales Osmundales Hymenophyllales Gleicheniales Cyatheales Psilotales
Pengelasan saintifik
Domain:	Eukaryota
Alam:	Plantae
Klad:	Trakeofit
Divisi:	Polypodiophyta
Kelas:	Polypodiopsida; Cronquist, Takht. & W.Zimm.
Subkelas
	†Stauropterididae; †Zygopterididae; Equisetidae; Marattiidae; Ophioglossidae; Polypodiidae;
Sinonim
	Filicatae Kubitski 1990; Filices; Filicophyta Endlicher 1836; Monilophyta Cantino & Donoghue 2007; Pteridopsida Ritgen 1828;

Pakis atau paku pakis (Polypodiopsida atau Polypodiophyta) ialah sejenis tumbuhan pembuluh (tumbuhan darat dengan tisu pembuluh xilem dan floem) yang membiak melalui spora, dan tidak mempunyai biji atau bunga. Ia berbeza dengan tumbuhan tanpa pembuluh (lumut jati, lumut tanduk dan lumut hati) kerana mempunyai berkas pembuluh khusus yang menyalurkan air dan nutrien dari akar ke akar, serta kitar hidup di mana sporofit bercabang menjadi fasa dominan.^[3]^[4]

Huraian

Sporofit

Pakis yang hidup kini adalah jenis saka bak herba dan tidak berkayu.^[5] Sekalipun ada, kayu ini hanya terdapat di dalam batang.^[6] Dedaunnya boleh jadi daun luruh atau malar hijau,^[7] dan beberapanya pula separa malar hijau bergantung iklim.^[8] Seperti sporofit tumbuhan berbiji, pakis mempunyai batang, daun dan akar. Pakis berbeza dengan spermatofit kerana membiak melalui spora, dan tidak berbunga atau menghasilkan biji.^[6] Namun, ia juga berbeza dengan briofit penghasil spora kerana seperti tumbuhan berbiji, ia merupakan polisporangiofit. Sporofitnya bercabang dan menghasilkan sporangium. Juga tidak seperti briofit, sporofit pakis hidup bebas dan hanya sedikit bergantung pada gametofit ibu.

Rizom dan pelepah

Sorus dan spora

Taburan dan habitat

Pakis tersebar luas dalam taburannya, dengan kekayaan paling tinggi di kawasan tropika dan paling sedikit di artik. Kepelbagaian terbesar terdapat di hutan hujan tropika.^[9] New Zealand, yang menjadikan paku pakis sebagai simbol, mempunyai kira-kira 230 spesies yang tersebar di seluruh negara.^[10] Ia juga biasa ditemukan di hutan-hutan Eropah.

Kegunaan

Kanji

Sayuran

Lihat juga

Rujukan

^ Stein et al 2007.
^ Pteridophyte Phylogeny Group 2016.
^ "Horsetails, clubmosses, and ferns". Ultimate Visual Dictionary (dalam bahasa Inggeris) (ed. 11th). DK Pub. 2017. m/s. 120–121. ISBN 978-1-4654-5894-0 – melalui Internet Archive.
^ Gerrienne, Philippe; Gonez, Paul (2011). "Early evolution of life cycles in embryophytes: A focus on the fossil evidence of gametophyte/sporophyte size and morphological complexity". Journal of Systematics and Evolution. 49 (1): 1–16. Bibcode:2011JSyEv..49....1G. doi:10.1111/j.1759-6831.2010.00096.x.
^ Mauseth, James D. (September 2008). Botany: an Introduction to Plant Biology. Jones & Bartlett Publishers. m/s. 492. ISBN 978-1-4496-4720-9.
^ ^a ^b Levyns, M. R. (1966). A Guide to the Flora of the Cape Peninsula (ed. 2nd Revised). Juta & Company. OCLC 621340.
^ Fernández, Helena; Kumar, Ashwani; Revilla, Maria Angeles (2010-11-11). Working with Ferns: Issues and Applications. Springer. m/s. 175. ISBN 978-1-4419-7162-3.
^ Hodgson, Larry (2005-01-01). Making the Most of Shade: How to Plan, Plant, and Grow a Fabulous Garden that Lightens Up the Shadows. Rodale. m/s. 329. ISBN 978-1-57954-966-4.
^ EB 2019.
^ SLH 2018.

Bibliografi

Buku

Christenhusz, Maarten M. J.; Fay, Michael; Byng, James W. (2018). The Global Flora: Special Edition: GLOVAP Nomenclature Part 1. Plant Gateway Limited. ISBN 978-0-9929993-6-0.
Linnaeus, Carl (1753). "Cryptogamia: Filices Musci". Species Plantarum: exhibentes plantas rite cognitas, ad genera relatas, cum differentiis specificis, nominibus trivialibus, synonymis selectis, locis natalibus, secundum systema sexuale digestas. 1. Stockholm, Sweden: Impensis Laurentii Salvii. m/s. 1061–1100, 1100–1130., see also Species Plantarum
Lord, Thomas R. (2006). Ferns and Fern Allies of Pennsylvania. Indiana, Pennsylvania: Pinelands Press. Ferns and Fern Allies of Pennsylvania – Thomas Reeves Lord.
Moran, Robbin C. (2004). A Natural History of Ferns. Portland, Oregon: Timber Press. ISBN 0-88192-667-1
Ranker, Tom A.; Haufler, Christopher H. (2008). Biology and Evolution of Ferns and Lycophytes. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-87411-3.
Swartz, Olof (1806). Synopsis filicum: earum genera et species systematice complectens: adjectis lycopodineis, et descriptionibus novarum et rariorum specierum: cum tabulis aeneis quinque. Kiliae: Impensis Bibliopolii novi academici.

Artikel jurnal

Berry, Chris (2009). "The Middle Devonian plant collections of Francois Stockmans reconsidered". Geologica Belgica. 12 (1–2): 25–30.
Bomfleur, B.; McLoughlin, S.; Vajda, V. (20 March 2014). "Fossilized Nuclei and Chromosomes Reveal 180 Million Years of Genomic Stasis in Royal Ferns". Science. 343 (6177): 1376–1377. Bibcode:2014Sci...343.1376B. doi:10.1126/science.1249884. PMID 24653037. S2CID 38248823.
Cantino, Philip D.; Doyle, James A.; Graham, Sean W.; Judd, Walter S.; Olmstead, Richard G.; Soltis, Douglas E.; Soltis, Pamela S.; Donoghue, Michael J. (1 August 2007). "Towards a Phylogenetic Nomenclature of Tracheophyta". Taxon. 56 (3): 822. doi:10.2307/25065865. JSTOR 25065865.
Chase, Mark W. & Reveal, James L. (2009). "A phylogenetic classification of the land plants to accompany APG III". Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society. 161 (2): 122–127. doi:10.1111/j.1095-8339.2009.01002.x.
Christenhusz, Maarten J. M. & Byng, J. W. (2016). "The number of known plants species in the world and its annual increase". Phytotaxa. Magnolia Press. 261 (3): 201–217. Bibcode:2016Phytx.261..201C. doi:10.11646/phytotaxa.261.3.1.
Christenhusz, Maarten J. M.; Zhang, X. C.; Schneider, H. (18 February 2011). "A linear sequence of extant families and genera of lycophytes and ferns". Phytotaxa. 19 (1): 7. Bibcode:2011Phytx..19....7C. doi:10.11646/phytotaxa.19.1.2. hdl:10138/28042.
Christenhusz, Maarten J. M.; Chase, Mark W. (2014). "Trends and concepts in fern classification". Annals of Botany. 113 (4): 571–594. doi:10.1093/aob/mct299. PMC 3936591. PMID 24532607.
Christenhusz, Maarten J. M.; Chase, Mark W. (1 June 2018). "PPG recognises too many fern genera". Taxon. 67 (3): 481–487. Bibcode:2018Taxon..67..481C. doi:10.12705/673.2.
May, Lenore Wile (1978). "The economic uses and associated folklore of ferns and fern allies". The Botanical Review. 44 (4): 491–528. Bibcode:1978BotRv..44..491M. doi:10.1007/BF02860848. S2CID 42101599.
Melan, M. A.; Whittier, D. P. (1990). "Effects of Inorganic Nitrogen Sources on Spore Germination and Gametophyte Growth in Botrychium Dissectum". Plant, Cell and Environment. 13 (5): 477–482. Bibcode:1990PCEnv..13..477M. doi:10.1111/j.1365-3040.1990.tb01325.x.
Pryer, Kathleen M.; Schneider, Harald; Smith, Alan R.; Cranfill, Raymond; Wolf, Paul G.; Hunt, Jeffrey S.; Sipes, Sedonia D. (2001). "Horsetails and ferns are a monophyletic group and the closest living relatives to seed plants". Nature. 409 (6820): 618–622. Bibcode:2001Natur.409..618S. doi:10.1038/35054555. PMID 11214320. S2CID 4367248.
Pryer, Kathleen M.; Schuettpelz, Eric; Wolf, Paul G.; Schneider, Harald; Smith, Alan R.; Cranfill, Raymond (2004). "Phylogeny and evolution of ferns (monilophytes) with a focus on the early leptosporangiate divergences". American Journal of Botany. 91 (10): 1582–1598. Bibcode:2004AmJB...91.1582P. doi:10.3732/ajb.91.10.1582. PMID 21652310.
Pteridophyte Phylogeny Group (November 2016). "A community-derived classification for extant lycophytes and ferns". Journal of Systematics and Evolution. 54 (6): 563–603. Bibcode:2016JSyEv..54..563.. doi:10.1111/jse.12229. S2CID 39980610.
Schneider, Harald; Smith, Alan R.; Pryer, Kathleen M. (1 July 2009). "Is Morphology Really at Odds with Molecules in Estimating Fern Phylogeny?". Systematic Botany. 34 (3): 455–475. Bibcode:2009SysBo..34..455S. doi:10.1600/036364409789271209. S2CID 85855934.
Schuettpelz, Eric (2007). "Table 1". The evolution and diversification of epiphytic ferns (PDF) (PhD thesis). Duke University. Diarkibkan daripada yang asal (PDF) pada 20 June 2010. Dicapai pada 11 December 2009.
Schuettpelz, Eric; Rouhan, Germinal; Pryer, Kathleen M.; Rothfels, Carl J.; Prado, Jefferson; Sundue, Michael A.; Windham, Michael D.; Moran, Robbin C.; Smith, Alan R. (1 June 2018). "Are there too many fern genera?". Taxon. 67 (3): 473–480. Bibcode:2018Taxon..67..473S. doi:10.12705/673.1.
Smith, Alan R.; Kathleen M. Pryer; Eric Schuettpelz; Petra Korall; Harald Schneider; Paul G. Wolf (2006). "A classification for extant ferns" (PDF). Taxon. 55 (3): 705–731. Bibcode:2006Taxon..55..705S. doi:10.2307/25065646. JSTOR 25065646.
Stein, W. E.; Mannolini, F.; Hernick, L. V.; Landling, E.; Berry, C. M. (2007). "Giant cladoxylopsid trees resolve the enigma of the Earth's earliest forest stumps at Gilboa". Nature. 446 (7138): 904–907. Bibcode:2007Natur.446..904S. doi:10.1038/nature05705. PMID 17443185. S2CID 2575688.
Walkowiak, Radoslaw Janusz (2017). "Classification of Pteridophytes – Short classification of the ferns" (PDF). IEA Paper. doi:10.13140/RG.2.2.29934.20809.
Underwood, L. M. (1903). "The early writers on ferns and their collections. I. Linnaeus, 1707–1778". Torreya. 3 (10): 145–150. ISSN 0096-3844. JSTOR 40594126.

Laman sesawang

McCausland, Jim (22 February 2019). "Rediscover ferns". Garden plants. Sunset Magazine. Diarkibkan daripada yang asal pada 30 October 2021. Dicapai pada 22 November 2019.
"Pteridopsida: Fossil Record". Plants: Pteridopsida. University of California Museum of Paleontology. Dicapai pada 23 November 2019.
"Classifying and identifying ferns". Science Learning Hub (dalam bahasa Inggeris). The University of Waikato. 3 September 2018. Dicapai pada 24 November 2019.
Mickel, John T.; Wagner, Warren H.; Gifford, Ernest M.; dll. (4 February 2019). "Fern". Encyclopædia Britannica. Dicapai pada 24 November 2019.
Hassler, Michael; Schmitt, Bernd (2 November 2019). "Checklist of Ferns and Lycophytes of the World". World Ferns. Botanical Garden of the Karlsruhe Institute of Technology. Diarkibkan daripada yang asal pada 2 September 2017. Dicapai pada 25 November 2019.
Pryer, Kathleen M.; Smith, Alan R.; Rothfels, Carl (2009). "Polypodiopsida". Tree of Life.
A classification of the ferns and their allies. (Australian National Herbarium)
A fern book bibliography.
Register of fossil Pteridophyta
Watson, L. and M. J. Dallwitz (2004 onwards). The Ferns (Filicopsida) of the British Isles. Diarkibkan 3 Mac 2016 di Wayback Machine
Ferns and Pteridomania in Victorian Scotland.
Non-seed plant images at bioimages.vanderbilt.edu
American Fern Society
British Pteridological Society Diarkibkan 2 Januari 2019 di Wayback Machine
International Equisetological Association

Rencana mengenai tumbuhan ini ialah rencana tunas. Anda boleh membantu Wikipedia dengan mengembangkannya.

[FOOTNOTEStein_et_al2007-1] Stein et al 2007.

[FOOTNOTEPteridophyte_Phylogeny_Group2016-2] Pteridophyte Phylogeny Group 2016.

[DK_Pub.-2017-3] "Horsetails, clubmosses, and ferns". Ultimate Visual Dictionary (dalam bahasa Inggeris) (ed. 11th). DK Pub. 2017. m/s. 120–121. ISBN 978-1-4654-5894-0 – melalui Internet Archive.

[4] Gerrienne, Philippe; Gonez, Paul (2011). "Early evolution of life cycles in embryophytes: A focus on the fossil evidence of gametophyte/sporophyte size and morphological complexity". Journal of Systematics and Evolution. 49 (1): 1–16. Bibcode:2011JSyEv..49....1G. doi:10.1111/j.1759-6831.2010.00096.x.

[5] Mauseth, James D. (September 2008). Botany: an Introduction to Plant Biology. Jones & Bartlett Publishers. m/s. 492. ISBN 978-1-4496-4720-9.

[Levyns-1966-6] Levyns, M. R. (1966). A Guide to the Flora of the Cape Peninsula (ed. 2nd Revised). Juta & Company. OCLC 621340.

[7] Fernández, Helena; Kumar, Ashwani; Revilla, Maria Angeles (2010-11-11). Working with Ferns: Issues and Applications. Springer. m/s. 175. ISBN 978-1-4419-7162-3.

[8] Hodgson, Larry (2005-01-01). Making the Most of Shade: How to Plan, Plant, and Grow a Fabulous Garden that Lightens Up the Shadows. Rodale. m/s. 329. ISBN 978-1-57954-966-4.

[FOOTNOTEEB2019-9] EB 2019.

[FOOTNOTESLH2018-10] SLH 2018.

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Pangkalan data kawalan kewibawaan
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Kebangsaan	Amerika Syarikat Perancis Data BnF Jepun Republik Czech Israel
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