Sekularisme

Untuk kegunaan lain, sila lihat Secular (disambiguation).

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George Jacob Holyoake (1817-1906), British writer who coined the term "secularism."

Sekularisme adalah konsep bahawa kerajaan atay entiti lain harus wujud secara terasing dari agama dan/atau kepercayaan agama.

Dalam satu segi, sekularisme dapat memberikan hak untuk menjadi bebas dari peraturan dan ajaran agama, dan kebebasan dari pengenaan agama kerajaan terhadap rakyat dalam sebuah negara yang berkecuali pada hal ehwal agama. (Lihat juga Pengasingan gereja dan negara dan Laïcité.) Dari segi lain, ia merujukkan pada pandangan bahawa aktiviti manusia dan keputusan, khususnya yang berpolitik, harus berasaskan pada bukti dan fakta yang tidak berat sebelah dengan pengaruh keagamaan. (See also public reason.)

Sekularisme mendapatkan akar intelektualnya dari ahli falsafah Greek dan Rom seperti Marcus Aurelius dan Epicurus, polymath Islam zaman pertengahan seperti Ibn Rushd, pemikir Kesedaran seperti Denis Diderot, Voltaire, John Locke, James Madison, Thomas Jefferson, dan Thomas Paine, dan pemikir bebeas, agnostik dan ateis seperti Bertrand Russell dan Robert Ingersoll.

Tujuan dan perdebatan pada sokongan berlainan secara lebar. Laikisme Eropah, ia telah didebatkan bahawa sekularisme adalah suatu gerakan terhadap modernisasi, dan jauh dari nilai-bilai keagamaan tradisional (yang juga digelar "sekularisasi"). Jenis sekularisme ini, pada suatu tahap sosial atau berfalsafah, telah sering bermuncul sementarta mengekalkan suatu gereja negara rasmi atau sokongan agama negara lain. Di Amerika Syarikat, sesetengah berdebat bahawa sekularisme negara telah berkhidmat pada setakat yang lebih besar untuk melindungi agama dari gangguan kerajaan, sementara sekularisme pada suatu tahap sosial adalah lebih prevalent. Dalam negara-negara juga, gerakan politik berlainan menyokong sekularisme untuk berlainan alasan.

Gambaran keseluruhan

Istilah "sekularisme" pertama kali digunakan oleh pengaran British George Holyoake pada 1851. Walaupun istilah itu baru, tanggapan umum pemikiran bebas pada mana ia berasas telah wujud di sepanjang sejarah. Pada khususnya, gagasan sekular awal termasuk pengasingan falsafah dan agama dapat dikesankan semula ke Ibn Rushd (Averroes) dan sekolah falsafah Averroisme. Holyoake mencipta istilah "sekularisme" untuk menjaslakan pandangannya pada mengalakkan suatu urutan sosial terasing dari gama, tanpa secara aktif menyingkirkan atau mengkritik kepercayaan agama. Seorang agnostik sendiri, Holyoake berdebat bahawa "Sekularisme bukanlah suatu perdebatan terhadap agama Kristian, ia adalah suatu yang bebas darinya. Ia tidak menyoalkan dakwaan angkuh agama Kristian; ia memajukan orang lain. Sekularisme tidak pernah mengata bahawa tiadanya cahaya atau pedoman di tempat lain, tetapi mengekalkan bahawa adanya cahaya dan pedoman pada kebenaran sekular, yang keadaan dan sekatan wujud secara berdikari, dan bertindak untuk selama-lamanya. Ilmu sekular adalah nyata jenis ilmu itu yang dapat ditemukan dalam hidup ini, yang berkaitan dengan kelakuan hidup ini, membawa kepada hidup, dan adalah mampu diujikan dengan pengalaman hidup ini."

Barry Kosmin dari Institute for the Study of Secularism in Society and Culture membahagikan sekularisme moden ke dalam dua jenis: sekularisme keras dan lembut. Menurut dengan Kosmin, "ahli sekular keras menganggapkan religious propositions to be epistemologically illegitimate, warranted by neither reason nor experience." Meskipun, dalam pandangan sekularisme lembut, "pencapaian kebenaran keseluruhan adalah mustahil dan oleh itu skeptikisme dan toleransi seharusnya menjadi prisip dan menolak nilai-nilai dalam membincang sains dan agama."

Sekularisme negara

Lihat juga: Negara sekular

Motto of the French republic on the tympanum of a church.

In political terms, secularism is a movement towards the separation of religion and government (often termed the separation of church and state). This can refer to reducing ties between a government and a state religion, replacing laws based on scripture (such as the Torah and Sharia law) with civil laws, and eliminating discrimination on the basis of religion. This is said to add to democracy by protecting the rights of religious minorities.

Secularism is often associated with the Age of Enlightenment in Europe and plays a major role in Western society. The principles, but not necessarily practices, of separation of church and state in the United States and Laïcité in France draw heavily on secularism. Secular states also existed in the Islamic world during the Middle Ages (see Islam and secularism).

Due in part to the belief in the separation of church and state, secularists tend to prefer that politicians make decisions for secular rather than religious reasons. In this respect, policy decisions pertaining to topics like abortion, contraception, embryonic stem cell research, same-sex marriage, and sex education are prominently focused upon by American secularist organizations such as the Center for Inquiry.

Most major religions accept the primacy of the rules of secular, democratic society but may still seek to influence political decisions or achieve specific privileges or influence through church-state agreements such as a concordat. Many Christians support a secular state, and may acknowledge that the conception has support in Biblical teachings, particularly Jesus' statement, "Then give to Caesar what is Caesar's, and to God what is God's." (See article). However, some Christian fundamentalists (notably in the United States) oppose secularism, often claiming that there is a "radical secularism" ideology being adopted in current days and see secularism as a threat to "Christian rights" and national security. The most significant forces of religious fundamentalism in the contemporary world are Fundamentalist Christianity and Fundamentalist Islam. At the same time, one significant stream of secularism has come from religious minorities who see governmental and political secularism as integral to preserving equal rights.

Some of the well known states that are often considered "constitutionally secular" are France, India,, Mexico South Korea, and Turkey although none of these nations have identical forms of governance.

Masyarakat secular

In studies of religion, modern Western societies are generally recognized as secular. This is due to the near-complete freedom of religion (beliefs on religion generally are not subject to legal or social sanctions), and the lack of authority of religious leaders over political decisions. Nevertheless, religious beliefs are widely considered a relevant part of the political discourse in many of these countries. This contrasts with other Western countries where religious references are generally considered out-of-place in mainstream politics.

Among the first to delineate the nature of a secular society, D. L. Munby characterizes a secular society as one which:

1. Refuses to commit itself as a whole to any one view of the nature of the universe and the role of man in it.
2. Is not homogenous, but is pluralistic.
3. Is tolerant. It widens the sphere of private decision-making.
4. While every society must have some common aims, which implies there must be agreed on methods of problem-solving, and a common framework of law; in a secular society these are as limited as possible.
5. Problem solving is approached rationally, through examination of the facts. While the secular society does not set any overall aim, it helps its members realize their aims.
6. Is a society without any official images. Nor is there a common ideal type of behavior with universal application.

Positive Ideals behind the secular society

1. Deep respect for individuals and the small groups of which they are a part.
2. Equality of all people.
3. Each person should be helped to realize their particular excellence.
4. Breaking down of the barriers of class and caste.

Modern sociology has, since Durkheim, often been preoccupied with the problem of authority in secularized societies and with secularization as a sociological or historical process. Twentieth-century scholars whose work has contributed to the understanding of these matters include D. L. Munby, Max Weber, Carl L. Becker, Karl Löwith, Hans Blumenberg, M.H. Abrams, Peter L. Berger, and Paul Bénichou, among others.

Some societies become increasingly secular as the result of social processes, rather than through the actions of a dedicated secular movement; this process is known as secularization.

Etik sosial

Laman utama: Etik sosial dan Agama sekular

George Holyoake's 1896 publication English Secularism defines secularism as:

Secularism is a code of duty pertaining to this life, founded on considerations purely human, and intended mainly for those who find theology indefinite or inadequate, unreliable or unbelievable. Its essential principles are three: (1) The improvement of this life by material means. (2) That science is the available Providence of man. (3) That it is good to do good. Whether there be other good or not, the good of the present life is good, and it is good to seek that good.

Holyoake held that secularism and secular ethics should take no interest at all in religious questions (as they were irrelevant), and was thus to be distinguished from strong freethought and atheism. In this he disagreed with Charles Bradlaugh, and the disagreement split the secularist movement between those who argued that anti-religious movements and activism was not necessary or desirable and those who argued that it was.

Pertubuhan sekularisme

Rencana utama: List of secularist organizations

Groups such as the National Secular Society (United Kingdom) and Americans United campaign for secularism are often supported by Humanists. In 2005, the National Secular Society held the inaugural "Secularist of the Year" awards ceremony. Its first winner was Maryam Namazie, of the Worker-Communist Party of Iran.

Another secularist organization is the Secular Coalition for America. Sean Faircloth, as Executive Director of Secular Coalition for America, lobbies and advocates for separation of church and state as well as the acceptance and inclusion of Secular Americans in American life and public policy. While Secular Coalition for America is linked to many secular humanistic organizations and many secular humanists support it, as with the Secular Society, some non-humanists support it.

Local organizations such as Freethought Association of West Michigan work to raise the profile of secularism in their communities and tend to include secularists, freethinkers, atheists, agnostics, and humanists under their organizational umbrella.

Student Organizations, such as the Toronto Secular Alliance, try to popularize nontheism and secularism on campus. The Secular Student Alliance is an educational nonprofit that organizes and aids such high school and college secular student groups.

In Turkey, the most prominent and active secularist organization is Atatürk Thought Association (ADD), which is credited for organizing the Republic Protests - demonstrations in the four largest cities in Turkey in 2007, where over 2 million people, mostly women, defended their concern in and support of secularist principles introduced by Mustafa Kemal Atatürk.

Leicester Secular Society founded in 1851 is the world's oldest secular society.

Lihat juga

Agnostikisme Anticlericalism Ateisme Agama sivil Clericalism Concordat Deism Pemikiran bebas Kemanusiaan Ignostikisms Laïcité Multiculturalism Naturalism Bukanteisme Pluralisme Katolikisme politik Postsecularism Pseudo-Secularism Rationalism Tolerasi agama Kemanusiaan sekular Negara sekular Secularisme di Bangladesh Sekularisme di India Sekularisme di Iran Sekularisme di Turki Sekularisme (Asia Selatan) Kesekularan Sekularisasi Perasingan gereja dan negara Six Arrows of Kemal Atatürk Ateisme negara Kontras: Theokrasi Polis agama Rujukan Nota Bibliografi The secular ethic Boyer, Pascal (2002). Religion Explained: The Evolutionary Origins of Religious Thought. ISBN 0-465-00696-5 Cliteur, Paul (1010). The Secular Outlook: in defense of moral and political secularism. ISBN 978-4443-3521-7 Holyoake, G.J. (1898). The Origin and Nature of Secularism. London: Watts & Co. Jacoby, Susan (2004). Freethinkers: a history of American secularism. New York: Metropolitan Books. ISBN 0-8050-7442-2 Nash, David (1992). Secularism, Art and Freedom. London: Continuum International. ISBN 0-7185-1417-3 (paperback published by Continuum, 1994: ISBN 0-7185-2084-X) Royle, Edward (1974). Victorian Infidels: the origins of the British Secularist Movement, 1791-1866. Manchester: Manchester University Press. ISBN 0-7190-0557-4 Online version Royle, Edward (1980). Radicals, Secularists and Republicans: popular freethought in Britain, 1866-1915. Manchester: Manchester University Press. ISBN 0-7190-0783-6 Asad,Talal(2003). " Formations Of The Secular: Christianity,Islam,Modernity ". Stanford University Press. ISBN 08047-4768-7 Taylor, Charles (2007). A Secular Age. Cambridge: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-02676-6 The secular society See also the references list in the article on secularization Berger, Peter L. (1967) The Sacred Canopy: Elements of a Sociological Theory of Religion. Garden City, NY: Doubleday. Chadwick, Owen (1975). The Secularization of the European mind in the nineteenth century. Cambridge University Press. Cox, Harvey (1996). The Secular City: Secularization and Urbanization in Theological Perspective. NY: Macmillan. Kosmin, Barry A. and Ariela Keysar (2007). Secularism and Secularity: Contemporary International Perspectives. Institute for the Study of Secularism in Society and Culture. ISBN 978-0-9794816-0-4; ISBN 0-9794816-0-0 Martin, David (1978). A General Theory of Secularization. Oxford: Blackwell. ISBN 0-631-18960-2 Martin, David (2005). On Secularization: Towards a Revised General Theory. Aldershot: Ashgate. ISBN 0-7546-5322-6 McLeod, Hugh (2000). Secularisation in Western Europe, 1848-1914. Basingstoke: Macmillan. ISBN 0-333-59748-6 Wilson, Bryan (1969). Religion in Secular Society. London: Penguin. King, Mike (2007). Secularism. The HIdden Origins of Disbelief. Cambridge: James Clarke & Co. ISBN 9780227172452 The secular state Adıvar, Halide Edip (1928). "The Turkish Ordeal". The Century Club. ISBN 0-830-50057-X Blancarte, Roberto (2006). "Religion, church, and state in contemporary Mexico." in Randall, Laura (ed.). Changing structure of Mexico: political, social, and economic prospects. [Columbia University Seminar]. 2nd. ed. M.E. Sharpe. Chapter 23, pp. 424–437. ISBN 978-0765614056. Cinar, Alev (2006). "Modernity, Islam, and Secularism in Turkey: Bodies, Places, and Time". University of Minnesota Press. ISBN 0-816-64411-X Cliteur, Paul (1010). The Secular Outlook: in defense of moral and political secularism. ISBN 978-4443-3521-7 Juergensmeyer, Mark (1994). The New cold war?: religious nationalism confronts the secular state. University of California Press. ISBN 0-520-08651-1 Schmitt, Karl M. (1962). "Catholic adjustment to the secular state: the case of Mexico, 1867-1911." Catholic Historical Review, Vol.48 (2), July, pp. 182–204. [1] Urban, Greg (2008). "The circulation of secularism." International Journal of Politics, Culture and Society, Vol. 21, (1-4), December. pp. 17–37. [2] Pautan luar Secularism 101: Religion, Society, and Politics SecularSites Institute for the Study of Secularism in Society and Culture The Secular Student Alliance SSRC Blog on Secularism, Religion, and the Public Sphere National Secular Society (UK)