Pengeboman strategik semasa Perang Dunia II
| Pengeboman strategik semasa Perang Dunia II | |||
|---|---|---|---|
| Sebahagian daripada Perang Dunia II | |||
 Sebuah B-24 menggugurkan bom ke atas kilang Astra Romana di Ploiești, Romania, semasa Operasi Tidal Wave[1] | |||
| |||
| Pihak yang terlibat | |||
Kuasa Bersekutu Amerika Syarikat United Kingdom Kanada Australia Dominion New Zealand Kesatuan Soviet.svg){kind=small} Poland China.svg){kind=small} Perancis |
Kuasa Paksi Jerman Nazi Jepun_crowned.svg){kind=small} Itali.svg){kind=small} Hungary Romania Bulgaria Thailand | ||
| Komandan dan pemimpin | |||
|
Henry Arnold Carl Spaatz Curtis LeMay Chester Nimitz Charles Portal Richard Peirse Arthur Harris Arthur Tedder Clifford McEwen George Jones Alexander Novikov Sergei Khudyakov Alexander Golovanov |
Hermann Göring Albert Kesselring Wolfram Freiherr von Richthofen Hugo Sperrle Naruhiko Higashikuni Hajime Sugiyama Masakazu Kawabe Chūichi Nagumo Rino Corso Fougier Francesco Pricolo Ettore Muti Kálmán Ternegg Gheorghe Jienescu | ||
| Kerugian dan korban | |||
|
Soviet Union: China: Britain: Perancis:
Poland:
Yugoslavia Belanda:
|
Jerman:
Jepun:
Itali: Hungary: Romania:
| ||
Pengeboman strategik semasa Perang Dunia II adalah serangan udara yang berpanjangan terhadap jalan keretapi, pelabuhan, bandar-bandar, perumahan pekerja dan orang awam, dan kawasan industri dalam wilayah musuh semasa Perang Dunia II. Pengeboman strategik ialah strategi ketenteraan yang berbeza dari sokongan udara dekat untuk angkatan darat dan kuasa udara taktikal.[20] Semasa Perang Dunia II, ia diyakini oleh ramai strategis tentera bahawa kekuatan udara dapat menjamin kemenangan besar dengan menyerang infrastruktur industri dan politik, dan bukannya sasaran tentera semata-mata.[21] Pengeboman strategik sering melibatkan kawasan pengeboman yang dihuni oleh orang awam dan beberapa kempen sengaja dirancang untuk mensasarkan penduduk awam supaya dapat menggerunkan mereka dan mengganggu aktiviti biasa mereka. Undang-undang antarabangsa pada awal Perang Dunia II tidak secara khusus melarang pengeboman udara di bandar-bandar walaupun sebelumnya terdapat pengeboman seperti itu semasa Perang Dunia I, Perang Saudara Sepanyol,dan Perang China-Jepun Kedua.
Pengeboman strategik semasa Perang Dunia II bermula pada 1 September 1939 apabila Jerman menceroboh Poland dan Luftwaffe (Tentera Udara Jerman) mula mengebom bandar-bandar dan penduduk awam di Poland dalam kempen pengeboman udara.[22] Ketika perang terus berlanjutan, pengeboman oleh Kuasa Paksi dan Pihak Bersekutu meningkat dengan ketara. Tentera Udara Diraja mula mengebom sasaran tentera di Jerman, seperti dermaga dan limbungan kapal, pada Mac 1940, dan mula mensasarkan Berlin pada Ogos 1940.[23] Pada September 1940, pihak Luftwaffe mula mensasarkan bandar-bandar British dalam kempen The Blitz.[24] Selepas bermulanya Operasi Barbarossa pada Jun 1941, Luftwaffe menyerang bandar-bandar Soviet dan infrastruktur. Dari Februari 1942 ke atas, kempen pengeboman British terhadap Jerman menjadi kurang ketat dan menambah sasaran ke atas tapak industri dan kawasan awam.[25][26] Apabila Amerika Syarikat memulakan misi pengeboman udara terhadap Jerman, ia memperkuatkan usaha ini dan pengeboman api yang kontroversi telah dilakukan ke atas Hamburg (1943), Dresden (1945), dan bandar-bandar Jerman yang lain.[27]
Dalam Perang Pasifik, pihak Jepun mengebom penduduk awam disepanjang peperangan (contohnya di Chongqing). Serangan udara ke atas Jepun oleh AS bermula dengan bersungguh-sungguh pada Oktober 1944[28] dan menjelang Mac 1945 telah mula meningkatkan pengeboman api secara meluas, memuncak dalam pengeboman atom Hiroshima dan Nagasaki pada 6 dan 9 Ogos 1945.
Kesan pengeboman strategik banyak diperdebatkan semasa dan selepas peperangan.[29][30][31][32] Kedua-dua Luftwaffe dan RAF gagal memberikan pukulan kalah mati dengan memusnahkan moral musuh. Namun, ada yang berpendapat bahawa pengeboman strategik sasaran bukan tentera dapat mengurangkan kapasiti industri dan pengeluaran musuh[33][34] dan dalam pendapat para pendukung di zaman antara perang, penyerahan kalah Jepun mewajarkan pengeboman strategik.[35] Jumlah kematian akibat pengeboman strategik cukup besar, bukan hanya dari segi pengeboman tetapi juga kehilangan kru udara. Beratus-ratus ribu atau sejuta orang awam terkorban, berjuta-juta orang lagi hilang tempat tinggal, dan banyak atau sebahagian besar bandaraya utama musnah, terutamanya di Eropah dan Asia.
Rujukan[sunting | sunting sumber]
Petikan[sunting | sunting sumber]
- ^ Duga, James; Stewart, Carroll (2002). Ploesti. Brassey's. ISBN 978-1-57488-510-1.
- ^ Ralat petik: Tag
<ref>tidak sah; teks bagi rujukanHawleytidak disediakan - ^ Kerr (1991), p. 276
- ^ Jennifer M. Lind (2010). "Sorry States: Apologies in International Politics". Cornell University Press. p.28. ISBN 0-8014-7628-3
- ^ R.J. Rummel (31 August 2007). China's Bloody Century: Genocide and Mass Murder Since 1900. Transaction Publishers.
- ^ a b Ralat petik: Tag
<ref>tidak sah; teks bagi rujukanWhitetidak disediakan - ^ Crook, Paul (2003). "Chapter 10 "The case against Area Bombing"". Dalam Peter Hore (penyunting). Patrick Blackett: Sailor, Scientist, and Socialist. Routledge. m/s. 176. ISBN 978-0-7146-5317-4.
- ^ André Corvisier (1994). A Dictionary of Military History and the Art of War, Blackwell Publishing, ISBN 0-631-16848-6. "Germany, air battle (1942–45)" by P. Facon and Stephen J. Harris p. 312
- ^ Ralat petik: Tag
<ref>tidak sah; teks bagi rujukanFrancetidak disediakan - ^ "Dywizjony bombowe w Polskich Siłach Zbrojnych na Zachodzie".
- ^ Ralat petik: Tag
<ref>tidak sah; teks bagi rujukanGermanytidak disediakan - ^ Matthew White Twentieth Century Atlas – Death Tolls: Allies bombing of Japan lists the following totals and sources
- 330,000: 1945 US Strategic Bombing Survey;
- 363,000: (not including post-war radiation sickness); John Keegan The Second World War (1989);
- 374,000: R. J. Rummel, including 337,000 democidal;
- 435,000: Paul Johnson Modern Times (1983)
- 500,000: (Harper Collins Atlas of the Second World War)
- ^ a b Marco Gioannini, Giulio Massobrio, Bombardate l'Italia. Storia della guerra di distruzione aerea 1940–1945, p. 491
- ^ Pataky, Rozsos & Sárhidai 1993, m/s. 235.
- ^ Ungváry 2004, m/s. 476.
- ^ Pataky, Rozsos & Sárhidai 1993, m/s. 229–232.
- ^ a b MARI DEZASTRE Bombardarea Bucureştilor în '44, Adevărul, 22 February 2011. Retrieved 20 June 2018.
- ^ a b Kiradzhiev, Svetlin (2006). Sofia 125 Years Capital 1879-2004 Chronicle (dalam bahasa Bulgaria). Sofia: IK Gutenberg. m/s. 196. ISBN 954-617-011-9.
- ^ E. Bruce Reynolds, "Aftermath of Alliance: The Wartime Legacy in Thai-Japanese Relations", Journal of Southeast Asian Studies, v21, n1, March 1990, pp. 66–87.
- ^ R.J. Overy, The Air War. 1939–1945 (1980) pp. 8–14
- ^ Tami Davis Biddle, "British and American Approaches to Strategic Bombing: Their Origins and Implementation in the World War II Combined Bomber Offensive", Journal of Strategic Studies (1995) 18#1 pp 91–144
- ^ Levine 1992, p. 21
- ^ "The first bombing raid on Germany by the RAF in World War II".
- ^ Ralat petik: Tag
<ref>tidak sah; teks bagi rujukanMurray 1983, p. 52tidak disediakan - ^ Hastings 1979
- ^ Garrett 1993[halaman diperlukan]
- ^ Boog 2001, p. 408.
- ^ Pimlott, John. B-29 Superfortress (London: Arms and Armour Press, 1980), p.40.
- ^ "United States Strategic Bombing Survey, established by the Secretary of War on 3 November 1944, pursuant to a directive from the late President Roosevelt, 30 September 1945". Anesi.com. Dicapai pada 1 November 2015.
- ^ J.K. Galbraith, "The Affluent Society", chapter 12 "The Illusion of National Security", first published 1958. Galbraith was a director of the U.S. Strategic Bombing Survey.
- ^ Williamson Murray, Allan Reed Millett, "A War To Be Won: fighting the Second World War", p. 319
- ^ http://www.econ.yale.edu/growth_pdf/cdp905.pdf
- ^ Ralat petik: Tag
<ref>tidak sah; teks bagi rujukanBuckley 1998, p. 165tidak disediakan - ^ Ralat petik: Tag
<ref>tidak sah; teks bagi rujukanMurray 1983, p. 253tidak disediakan - ^ Buckley 1998, p. 197.
Sumber[sunting | sunting sumber]
- Boog, Horst (2006). The Strategic Air War in Europe and the War in the West and East Asia, 1943–1944/5. Germany and the Second World War. VII. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-822889-9.
- Bradley, F. J. (1999) No Strategic Targets Left. "Contribution of Major Fire Raids Toward Ending WWII", Turner Publishing. ISBN 1-56311-483-6.
- Buckley, John (1998). Air Power in the Age of Total War. UCL Press. ISBN 978-1-85728-589-5.
- Caidin, Martin (1960). A Torch to the Enemy: The Fire Raid on Tokyo. Bantam War Books. ISBN 978-0-553-29926-7.
- Copp, Terry. The Bomber Command Offensive di Wayback Machine (diarkibkan 27 September 2007), originally published in the Legion Magazine September/October 1996
- Collier, Basil. The Defence of the United Kingdom. HMSO, 1957. OCLC 59930716
- Corum, James. (2007). The Luftwaffe: The Operational Air War, 1918–1940. University of Kansas Press. ISBN 0-7006-0836-2
- Corum, James S. (2013). "The Luftwaffe's Campaigns in Poland and the West 1939–1940: A Case Study of Handling Innovation in Wartime". Security and Defence Quarterly (1): 158–189. doi:10.5604/23008741.1191778 (Tidak aktif 31 May 2021).CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of Mei 2021 (link)
- Davis, Richard G. (2006) Bombing the European Axis Powers. A Historical Digest of the Combined Bomber Offensive 1939–1945 di Wayback Machine (diarkibkan 5 Mac 2009) Air University Press.
- Garrett, Stephen (1993). Ethics and Airpower in World War II. New York: St. Martin's Press. ISBN 978-0-312-08683-1.
- Grafton, Brian. Bomber Command di Wayback Machine (diarkibkan 9 Disember 2006) on the website Military History Online
- Grayling, A. C. (2006). Among the Dead Cities. London: Bloomsbury. ISBN 978-0-7475-7671-6.
- Green, William (1967). War Planes of the Second World War: Bombers. VIII. London: Macdonald.
- Hall, Cargill (1998). Case Studies in Strategic Bombardment. Air Force History and Museums Program. ISBN 978-0-16-049781-0.
- Griehl, Manfred; Dressel, Joachim (1998). Heinkel He 177-277-274. Shrewsbury, England: Airlife Publishing. m/s. 53.
- Hallion, Richard P. Decisive Air Power Prior to 1950 USAF History and Museums Program.
- Hastings, Max (1979). RAF Bomber Command. Pan Books. ISBN 0-330-39204-2
- Hinchcliffe, Peter (1996) The other battle : Luftwaffe night aces versus Bomber Command. Airlife Publishing, ISBN 978-1-85310-547-0
- Hooton, E.R (1994). Phoenix Triumphant; The Rise and Rise of the Luftwaffe. London: Arms & Armour Press. ISBN 1-86019-964-X
- Hooton, E.R (1997). Eagle in Flames; The Fall of the Luftwaffe. London: Arms & Armour Press. ISBN 1-86019-995-X
- Hooton, E.R (2007). Luftwaffe at War; Blitzkrieg in the West: Volume 2. London: Chevron/Ian Allan. ISBN 978-1-85780-272-6.
- Hooton, E.R. (2016). War over the Steppes: The air campaigns on the Eastern Front 1941–45. Osprey. ISBN 978-1-47281562-0.
- Jane's (1989). All the World's Aircraft 1940/41/42/43/44/45. London, Random House, ISBN 1-85170-199-0
- Levine, Alan J. (1992). The Strategic Bombing of Germany, 1940–1945. Greenwood. ISBN 978-0-275-94319-6.
- Longmate, Norman. (1983) The Bombers. Hutchinson. ISBN 0-09-151580-7.
- Murray, Williamson (1983). Strategy for Defeat: The Luftwaffe 1933–1945. Maxwell AFB: Air University Press. ISBN 978-1-58566-010-0.
- Nelson, Hank (2003). A different war: Australians in Bomber Command paper presented at the 2003 History Conference – Air War Europe
- Nelson, Hank (2006). Chased by the Sun: The Australians in Bomber Command in World War II, Allen & Unwin, ISBN 1-74114-847-2, ISBN 978-1-74114-847-3
- Overy, Richard J. (1980) The Air War Stein and Day. ISBN 978-1-57488-716-7
- Overy, Richard J. (2001). The Battle of Britain: The Myth and the Reality. New York: W.W. Norton. ISBN 978-0-393-02008-3. (hardcover, ISBN 0-393-32297-1 paperback, 2002)
- Overy, Richard J. (2013). The Bombing War : Europe 1939–1945. London & New York: Allen Lane. ISBN 978-0-7139-9561-9.
- Pataky, Iván; Rozsos, László; Sárhidai, Gyula (1993). Légi háború Magyarország felett [Air War over Hungary] (dalam bahasa Hungary). 2. Budapest: Zrínyi Kiadó. ISBN 963-327-173-8.
- Poeppel, Hans and Prinz von Preußen, Wilhelm-Karl and von Hase, Karl-Günther. (2000) Die Soldaten der Wehrmacht. Herbig Verlag. ISBN 978-3-7766-2057-3
- Price, Alfred. Kampfflieger -Bombers of the Luftwaffe January 1942-Summer 1943, Volume 3. 2005, Classic Publications. ISBN 978-1-903223-49-9
- Hansen, Randall (2008). Fire and Fury: The Allied Bombing of Germany, 1942–1945. Toronto: Doubleday Canada. ISBN 978-0-385-66403-5.
- RAF staff (6 April 2005). Bomber Command Campaign Diary. Royal Air Force Bomber Command 60th Anniversary. Diarkibkan daripada yang asal pada 6 July 2007.
- Ray, John. The Night Blitz. Booksales. ISBN 978-0-7858-1601-0.
- Richards, Denis (1953). The Fight at Odds. Royal Air Force 1939–1945. I. London: Her Majesty's Stationery Office. Diarkibkan daripada yang asal pada 4 September 2007. Dicapai pada 13 February 2014.
- Richards, Denis. The Hardest Victory: RAF Bomber Command in the Second World War. London: Coronet, 1995. ISBN 0-340-61720-9.
- R.J. Rummel. Was World War II American Urban Bombing Democide?
- Sherwood Ross. How the United States Reversed Its Policy on Bombing Civilians, The Humanist, Vol. 65, July–August 2005
- Smith, J. Richard and Creek, Eddie J. (2004). Kampflieger. Vol. 1.: Bombers of the Luftwaffe 1933-1940 Classic Publications. ISBN 978-1-903223-42-0
- Smith, J. Richard and Creek, Eddie J. (2004). Kampflieger. Vol. 2.: Bombers of the Luftwaffe July 1940 – December 1941. Classic Publications. ISBN 978-1-903223-43-7
- Spaight. James M. Bombing Vindicated Geoffrey Bles, London 1944. ASIN: B0007IVW7K (Spaight was Principal Assistant Secretary of the British Air Ministry)
- Spector, Ronald (1985). Eagle Against the Sun. Vintage Books. ISBN 978-0-394-74101-7
- Speidel, Wilhelm (1956). The Luftwaffe in the Polish Campaign of 1939. Montgomery, Alabama: Air Force Historical Research Agency. Diarkibkan daripada yang asal pada 27 May 2013.
- Taylor, Frederick (2005). Dresden: Tuesday, 13 February 1945. London: Bloomsbury. ISBN 978-0-7475-7084-4.
- Saward, Dudley. (1985) Bomber Harris. Doubleday. ISBN 978-0-385-11258-1
- Ungváry, Krisztián (2004). A magyar honvédség a második világháborúban [The Hungarian Defense Forces in the Second World War] (dalam bahasa Hungary). Budapest: Osiris. ISBN 9633896851.
- United States Strategic Bombing Survey. Summary Report (Pacific War) 1 July 1946.
- United States Strategic Bombing Survey. Summary Report (European War) 30 September 1945.
- United States Strategic Bombing Survey. The Defeat of the German Air Force. 1947.
- United States Strategic Bombing Survey. The Effects of Strategic Bombing on German Transportation. 1947.
- United States Strategic Bombing Survey. The Effects of Strategic Bombing on the German War Economy. 1945.
- Willmott, H.P. (1991). The Great Crusade. Free Press, 1991. ISBN 978-0-02-934716-4
- Wood & Dempster (1990) The Narrow Margin Chapter "Second Phase" ISBN 978-0-87474-929-8
- Wood, Derek and Dempster, Derek. (1990). The Narrow Margin: The Battle of Britain and the Rise of Air Power, London: Tri-Service Press, third revised edition. ISBN 1-85488-027-6.
- Young, Kevin. "The Path to Hiroshima and Nagasaki – Targeting Civilians", CounterPunch, 9–10 August 2008.
Bacaan lanjut[sunting | sunting sumber]
- Childers, Thomas (2008). "Facilis descensus averni est: The Allied Bombing of Germany and the Issue of German Suffering". Central European History. 38: 75. doi:10.1163/1569161053623624. ISSN 1569-1616. S2CID 145726489.
- Clodfelter, Mark. "Aiming to Break Will: America's World War II Bombing of German Morale and its Ramifications", Journal of Strategic Studies, June 2010, Vol. 33#3 pp 401–435, doi:10.1080/01402390903189436
- Coffey, Thomas M. (1977). Decision over Schweinfurt. New York: Doubleday. ISBN 978-0-679-50763-5.
- Coffey, Thomas M. (1982). HAP: The Story of the U.S. Air Force and the Man who Built It, General Henry H. "Hap" Arnold. New York: Viking Press. ISBN 978-0-670-36069-7.
- Coffey, Thomas M. (1987). Iron Eagle : The Turbulent Life of General Curtis LeMay. Random House Value publishing. ISBN 978-0-517-55188-2.
- Crane, Conrad C. American Airpower Strategy in World War II: Bombs, Cities, Civilians, and Oil (2016).
- Crane, Conrad C. Bombs, Cities, and Civilians: American Airpower Strategy in World War II (1993).
- Craven, Wesley F.; Cate, James Lea (1948–1958). The Army Air Forces in World War II, volumes 1–8. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-405-12137-1.
- Garretsen, Harry; Schramm, Marc; Brakman, Steven. The Strategic Bombing of German Cities during World War II and its Impact for Germany (PDF). Discussion Paper Series nr: 03-09. Tjalling, C. Koopmans Research Institute, Utrecht School of Economics, Utrecht University. Diarkibkan daripada yang asal (PDF) pada 24 August 2006. Dicapai pada 26 April 2006.
- Great Britain Air Ministry (1983). The Rise and Fall of the German Air Force. Arms and Armour Press. ISBN 978-0-85368-560-9.
- Greer, Ron (2005). Fire from the Sky: A Diary Over Japan. Jacksonville, Arkansas, U.S.A.: Greer Publishing. ISBN 978-0-9768712-0-0.
- Guillian, Robert (1982). I Saw Tokyo Burning: An Eyewitness Narrative from Pearl Harbor to Hiroshima. Jove Pubns. ISBN 978-0-86721-223-5.
- Hansell, Haywood S. The Strategic Air War Against Germany and Japan: A Memoir (1986) online
- Harris, Arthur (1998). Bomber Offensive. Greenhill Books/Lionel Leventhal. ISBN 978-1-85367-314-6.
- Hastings, Max (1979). Bomber Command. New York: Dial. ISBN 978-0-7181-1603-3.
- Hayward, Joel S.A. Stopped at Stalingrad: The Luftwaffe and Hitler's Defeat in the East, 1942–1943. University Press of Kansas, 1998. ISBN 978-0-7006-1146-1
- Kennet, Lee (1982). A History of Strategic Bombing. New York: Scribner. ISBN 978-0-684-17781-6.
- Lemay, Curtis E.; Yenne, Bill (1988). Superfortress: The Story of the B-29 and American Air Power. McGraw-Hill. ISBN 978-0-07-037164-4.
- McGowen, Tom (2001). Air Raid!:The Bombing Campaign. Brookfield, Connecticut, U.S.A.: Twenty-First Century Books. ISBN 978-0-7613-1810-1.
- Middlebrook, Martin; Everitt, Chris (1990). The Bomber Command War Diaries: An Operational Reference Book, 1939–1945. London: Penguin. ISBN 978-0-14-012936-6.
- Mierzejewski, Alfred (1987). The Collapse of the German War Economy, 1944–1945. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press. ISBN 978-0-8078-6338-1.
- Milward, Alan S. (1965). The German Economy at War. London: Prometheus Books. ISBN 978-0-485-11075-3.
- Patler, Nicholas. "Is the U.S. Haunted by Its Nuclear Past? Dropping the atomic bomb crossed a moral threshold." The Progressive Christian (Winter 2009), pp 15–19,36.
- Patler, Nicholas. "Book Reviews/Essay: A Twentieth Century History of Bombing Civilians, and A History of Bombing." Journal of Critical Asian Studies (March 2011), 153–156.
- Ross, Stewart Halsey (2003). Strategic Bombing by the United States in World War II. The Myths and the Facts. McFarland & Co. ISBN 978-0-7864-1412-3.
- Rumpf, Hans (1963). The bombing of Germany. Diterjemahkan oleh Fitzgerald, Edward. Holt, Rinehart & Winston.
- Shannon, Donald H. (1976). United States air strategy and doctrine as employed in the strategic bombing of Japan. U.S. Air University, Air War College. OCLC 2499355.
- Smith, Major Phillip A. Bombing to Surrender: The contribution of air power to the collapse of Italy, 1943 (Pickle Partners Publishing, 2014).
- Verrier, Anthony (1974). The Bomber Offensive. New York: Pan. ISBN 978-0-330-23864-9.
- Spaight, James M (1944). Bombing Vindicated. G. Bles. OCLC 1201928. – Spaight was Principal Assistant Secretary of the Air Ministry (U.K)
- Webster, Charles; Frankland, Noble (1961). The Strategic Air Offensive against Germany, volumes 1–4. London: Her Majesty's Stationery Office. ISBN 978-1-84574-437-3.
- Weigley, Russell (1981). Eisenhower's Lieutenants. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. ISBN 978-0-253-13333-5.
Pautan luar[sunting | sunting sumber]
- The Blitz: Sorting the Myth from the Reality by BBC History
- Liverpool Blitz— Experience 24 hours in a city under fire in the Blitz from National Museums Liverpool
- Coventry Blitz Resource Centre
- The 376th Heavy Bombardment Group Oral Histories at Ball State University
- Allied Bombers and Crews – slideshow by Life magazine
- Annotated bibliography for conventional bombing during World War II from the Alsos Digital Library for Nuclear Issues
- The Revenger's Tragedy by Leo McKinstry (in New Statesman)
